Structural batteries can simultaneously store electrical energy and carry mechanical load, being similar to both laminated carbon fiber composites and lithium ion batteries. The matrix in a structural battery must both conduct ions and transfer load between the fibers, made possible with a phase-separated combination of a solid polymer and a liquid electrolyte. This leads to a trade-off between the polymer contact creating adhesion and liquid contact creating ionic conductivity. Here we investigate the fiber-matrix adhesion between carbon fibres with different sizing and two different matrix systems, using microbond testing supported by transverse tensile tests. The results show that the mechanical adhesion of the fiber-matrix interface is lower than that of a commercial non-ion conducting polymer matrix but sufficient for structural battery applications.

Predicting the performance of Li-ion batteries over lifetime is necessary for design and optimal operation of integrated energy systems, as electric vehicles and energy grids. For prediction purposes, several models have been suggested in the literature, with different levels of complexity and predictability. In particular, electrochemical models suffer of high computational costs, while empirical models are deprived of physical meaning. In the present work, a semi-empirical model is suggested, holding the computational efficiency of empirical approaches (low number of fitting parameters, low-order algebraic equations), while providing insights on the processes occurring in the battery during operation. The proposed model is successfully validated on experimental battery cycles: specifically, in conditions of capacity fade > 20%, and dynamic cycling at different temperatures. A comparable performance to up-to-date empirical models is achieved both in terms of computational time, and correlation coefficient R-2. In addition, analyzing the evolution of fitting parameters as a function of cycle number allows to identify the limiting processes in the overall battery degradation for all the protocols considered. The model suggested is thus suitable for implementation in system modelling, and it can be employed as an informative tool for improved design and operational strategies.

With the vehicle industry poised to take the step into the era of electric vehicles, concerns have been raised that AC harmonics arising from switching of power electronics and harmonics in electric machinery may damage the battery. In light of this, we have studied the effect of several different frequencies on the aging of 28 Ah commercial NMC/graphite prismatic lithium-ion battery cells. The tested frequencies are 1 Hz, 100 Hz, and 1 kHz, all with a peak amplitude of 21 A. Both the effect on cycled cells and calendar aged cells is tested. The cycled cells are cycled at a rate of 1C:1C, i.e., 28 A during both charging and discharging, with the exception of a period of constant voltage at the end of every charge. After running for one year, the cycled cells have completed approximately 2000 cycles. The cells are characterized periodically to follow how their capacities and power capabilities evolve. After completion of the test about 80% of the initial capacity remained and no increase in resistance was observed. No negative effect on either capacity fade or power fade is observed in this study, and no difference in aging mechanism is detected when using non-invasive electrochemical methods of post mortem investigation.

Reduced mass for improvements in system performance has become a priority for a wide range of applications that requires electrical energy and includes load-bearing components. Use of lightweight materials has been identified as key for successful electrification of future transport solutions. Structure, energy storage and energy distribution are usually subsystems with the highest mass contributions but energy storage and energy distribution devices are structurally parasitic. One creative path forward is to develop composite materials that perform several functions at the same time – multifunctional materials. Combining functions in a single material entity will enable substantial weight savings on the systems level.

One such concept is a structural battery, a material that simultaneously carry load and stores energy like a battery. Structural batteries employ carbon fibres as structural reinforcement and negative electrode and can also be used as current collectors to save additional weight.

A number of new physical phenomena when using carbon fibres as battery electrodes have been found which allows for further multi-functionality. These are all based on the fact that carbon fibres intercalated lithium ions as an electrode material. The ion intercalation creates a reversible longitudinal expansion of the carbon fibres which could be used for actuation and morphing. A piezo electrochemical effect couples the electrical potential of the fibre to the strain acting on it, which can be used for sensing purposes. By combining the expansion and the piezo electrochemical effect one can convert mechanical energy to electrochemical energy, providing an energy harvesting function. The long-term vision of this work is to create a composite material that carries load, stores electrical energy, senses its own state, morphs and harvests energy.

The crystal structure of the title compound, [Ni-3(C8H4O4)(3)(C3H7NO)(4)], is a two-dimensional coordination network formed by trinuclear linear Ni-3(tp)(3)(DMF)(4) units (tp = terephthalate = benzene-1,4-dicarboxylate and DMF = dimethyl-formamide) displaying a characteristic coordination mode of acetate groups in polynuclear metal-organic compounds. Individual trinuclear units are connected through tp anions in a triangular network that forms layers. One of the DMF ligands points outwards and provides interactions with equivalent planes above and below, leaving the second ligand in a structural void much larger than the DMF molecule, which shows positional disorder. Parallel planes are connected mainly through weak C-H center dot center dot center dot O, H center dot center dot center dot H and H center dot center dot center dot C interactions between DMF molecules, as shown by Hirshfeld surface analysis.

The reactions in energy-optimized 25 Ah prismatic NMC/graphite lithium-ion cell, as a function of fast charging (1C-4C), are more complex than earlier described. There are no clear charging rate dependent trends but rather different mechanisms dominating at the different charging rates. Ageing processes are faster at 3 and 4C charging. Cycling with 3C-charging results in accelerated lithium plating but the 4C-charging results in extensive gas evolution that contribute significantly to the large cell impedance rise. Graphite exfoliation and accelerated lithium inventory loss point to the graphite electrode as the source of the gas evolution. The results are based on careful post-mortem analyses of electrodes using: scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). SEM results show particle cracking independent of the charging rate used for the cycling. XPS and EIS generally indicate thicker surface film and larger impedance, respectively, towards the edge of the jellyrolls. For the intended application of a battery electric inner-city bus using this type of cell, charging rates of 3C and above are not feasible, considering battery lifetime. However, charging rates of 2C and below are too slow from the point of view of practical charging time.

The performance of thin carboxylated cellulose nanofiber-based (CNF) membranes as proton exchange membranes in fuel cells has been measured in situ as a function of CNF surface charge density (600 and 1550 μmol g⁻¹), counterion (H⁺ or Na⁺), membrane thickness and fuel cell relative humidity (RH 55 to 95%). The structural evolution of the membranes as a function of RH, as measured by Small Angle X-ray Scattering, shows that water channels are formed only above 75% RH. The amount of absorbed water was shown to depend on the membrane surface charge and counter ions (H⁺ or Na⁺). The high affinity of CNF for water and the high aspect ratio of the nanofibers, together with a well-defined and homogenous membrane structure, ensures a proton conductivity exceeding 1 mS cm⁻¹ at 30 °C between 65 and 95% RH. This is two orders of magnitude larger than previously reported values for cellulose materials and only one order of magnitude lower than Nafion 212. Moreover, the CNF membranes are characterized by a lower hydrogen crossover than Nafion, despite being ≈30% thinner. Thanks to their environmental compatibility and promising fuel cell performance the CNF membranes should be considered for new generation proton exchange membrane fuel cells.

Producer gas from biomass gasification contains impurities like tars, particles, alkali salts, and sulfur/nitrogen compounds. As a result, a number of process steps are required to condition the producer gas before utilization as a syngas and further upgrading to final chemicals and fuels. Here, we study the concept of using molten carbonate electrolysis cells (MCEC) both to clean and to condition the composition of a raw syngas stream, from biomass gasification, for further upgrading into synthetic natural gas (SNG). A mathematical MCEC model is used to analyze the impact of operational parameters, such as current density, pressure and temperature, on the quality and amount of syngas produced. Internal rate of return (IRR) is evaluated as an economic indicator of the processes considered. Results indicate that, depending on process configuration, the production of SNG can be boosted by approximately 50-60% without the need of an additional carbon source, i.e., for the same biomass input as in standalone operation of the GoBi-Gas plant.

Carboxylated cellulose nanofibers, prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation (TOCN), were processed into asymmetric mesoporous membranes using a facile paper-making approach and investigated as lithium ion battery separators. Membranes made of TOCN with sodium carboxylate groups (TOCN-COO-Na+) showed capacity fading after a few cycles of charging and discharging. On the other hand, its protonated counterpart (TOCN-COOH) showed highly improved electrochemical and cycling stability, displaying 94.5% of discharge capacity maintained after 100 cycles at 1 C rate of charging and discharging. The asymmetric surface porosity of the membranes must be considered when assembling a battery cell as it influences the rate capabilities of the battery. The wood-based TOCN-membranes have a good potential as an ecofriendly alternative to conventional fossil fuel-derived separators without adverse side effects.

Structural batteries are materials that can carry mechanical load while storing electrical energy. This is achieved by combining the properties of carbon fiber composites and lithium ion batteries. There are many design parameters for a structural battery and in order to understand their impact and importance, this paper presents a model for multifunctional performance. The mechanical behavior and electrical energy storage of the structural battery are matched to the mechanical behavior of a conventional carbon fiber composite, and the electrical energy storage of a standard lithium ion battery. The latter are both monofunctional and have known performance and mass. In order to calculate the benefit of using structural batteries, the mass of the structural battery is compared to that of the two monofunctional systems. There is often an inverse relationship between the mechanical and electrochemical properties of multifunctional materials, in order to understand these relationships a sensitivity analysis is performed on variables for the structural battery. This gives new insight into the complex multifunctional design of structural batteries.

The results show that it is possible to save mass compared to monofunctional systems but that it depends strongly on the structure it is compared with. With improvements to the design of the structural battery it would be possible to achieve mass saving compared to state-of-the-art composite laminates and lithium ion batteries.