Experimental results on the aero-acoustic interaction at an area expansion are scarce. In this study, new experimental data is acquired of the aero-acoustic interaction at an area expansion and compared with recent modeling efforts. The aero-acoustic interaction at an area expansion with expansion ratio eta = 0.309 is investigated by measuring the scattering matrix for plane waves at 5 different flow speeds in the incompressible regime. The experimental results are complimented with a comprehensive uncertainty analysis to determine the precision of the data. The scattering coefficients together with derived quantities such as absorption coefficients and dimensionless end corrections are compared against recent analytical results. It is shown that there is consistent deviation between the models and measurement results for certain scattering coefficients. The measured end correction on Strouhal number close to the critical Strouhal number shows a relatively abrupt change. This in comparison with the models, where the change is predicted to be more gradual. Similar observations are made for the absorption coefficient for waves incident upstream of the area expansion, although a qualitative comparison is difficult to make in this case because of the strong influence of the flow downstream of the area-expansion on the results.

In recent years, much effort has been devoted to find the "optimum impedance" (i.e., the impedance that results in the maximum modal decay rate in flow duct acoustics for a given frequency, Mach number, and azimuthal mode order). Although such analysis can be carried out by means of numerical simulations, analytical expressions can also be derived to predict the optimum impedance. Previous works have been concerned with the optimum impedance of higher-order modes in rectangular ducts with uniform flow. In this work, the analysis is expanded to circular ducts for both uniform and sheared inviscid flows. Focus is given to typical operating conditions found in turbofan engine intakes and vehicle exhaust systems. It is shown that, in certain conditions, the optimum impedance is affected even by the presence of a small boundary-layer thickness. It is also noted that, for low Helmholtz numbers, the optimum impedance may have a negative resistance.

A combined design method of impedance of acoustic nacelle is developed based on the Cremer impedance. First, the Cremer method is further extended to provide the theoretical optimum impedance for infinite uniform annular ducts in the presence of a single azimuthal mode and plug flow. Then, with the Cremer impedance being the initial value, the searching optimization based on a finite element sound propagation model is conducted to determine the impedance for maximizing noise reduction under the conditions of nearly actual duct geometry and flow. A design case of impedance of a typical aeroengine inlet is used to evaluate the method. The TL contour against impedance indicates that the combined design can avoid the local solution and find successfully the globally optimum impedance, thereby leading to the maximum sound attenuation. Additionally, the Cremer impedance is quite close to the final optimum impedance in this case, thereby providing not only a good initial impedance but also a proper searching space for the search optimization. Therefore, the combined design method is of high efficiency and accuracy.

Heat exchangers, consisting of tube arrays in a cross-flow are a vital component of power generation systems. They are of interest from an acoustic point of view, because they can reflect, transmit and absorb an incident sound wave; in other words, they have the potential to act as a sound absorber and even as a passive control device to prevent a thermoacoustic instability in the power generation system. This paper presents a fundamental study of the aeroacoustic response of a tube array with and without bias-flow (also called cross-flow). The study has a theoretical and experimental side. On the theoretical side, a new model, based on the assumption of quasi-steady flow, was developed to predict the acoustic reflection and transmission coefficient of a tube array with bias-flow. Also, the model by Huang and Heckl (Huang and Heckl, 1993, Acustica 78, 191-200) for the case without bias-flow was evaluated. On the experimental side, flow-duct experiments using a multi-microphone technique were performed to validate the predictions from both models. The agreement was found to be very good for low frequencies. The measurements revealed the limit of validity of the quasi-steady model in terms of the Strouhal number. Although this limit is quite low, our quasi-steady model can serve as a valuable tool for designers of heat exchangers.

To be able to compare the measured scattering matrices with model predictions, the quality of the measurements has to be known. Uncertainty analyses are invaluable to assess and improve the quality of measurement results in terms of accuracy and precision. Linear analyses are widespread, computationally fast and give information of the contribution of each error source to the overall measurement uncertainty; however, they cannot be applied in every situation. The purpose of this study is to determine if linear methods can be used to assess the quality of acoustic scattering matrices. The uncertainty in measured scattering matrices is assessed using a linear uncertainty analysis and the results are compared against Monte-Carlo simulations. It is shown that for plane waves, a linear uncertainty analysis, applied to the wave decomposition method, gives correct results when three conditions are satisfied. For higher order mode measurements, the number of conditions that have to be satisfied increases rapidly and the linear analysis becomes an unsuitable choice to determine the uncertainty on the scattering matrix coefficients. As the linear uncertainty analysis is most suitable for the plane wave range, an alternative linear method to assess the quality of the measurements is investigated. This method, based on matrix perturbation theory, gives qualitative information in the form of partial condition numbers and the implementation is straightforward. Using the alternative method, the measurements of higher order modes are analyzed and the observed difference in the measured reflection coefficients for different excitation conditions is explained by the disparity in modal amplitudes.

A self-sustained sound, more usually known as a whistle, refers to a distinct tonal noise created due to the interaction between the sound and flow field. When a positive feedback loop is formed between the two fields, the energy in the mean flow will be transferred into the sound wave, thus giving rise to a whistle. In engineering practice, whistles are destructive as they can produce high sound and vibration levels and may result in risk for mechanical failures. In this work, a flow-related high level tonal noise was found during a measurement on a particle agglomeration pipe, which is a quasi-periodic corrugated structure designed for the exhaust system of heavy-duty trucks. The purpose of the pipe is to enhance particle agglomeration to increase the size of exhaust gas particles. To investigate the origin of the detected tonal noise additional measurements were carried out. Based on the measurement result, the aero-acoustic coupling in the agglomeration pipe was analyzed, revealing that the pipe has a large potentiality to amplify the incident sound power in the presence of a mean flow. Furthermore, the Nyquist stability criterion was applied to confirm the existence of exponentially growing modes in the system at certain conditions.

Perforates are used for noise control in automotive mufflers and aircraft engine liners as well as for other vehicles and machines. Their acoustic properties and noise reduction are known to depend on the mean flow field and other parameters such as temperature and acoustic excitation level. It is therefore of interest to understand how the properties of perforates varies with the level of acoustic excitation. This paper gives an overview of high level nonlinear effects on the acoustic properties of perforates. It includes semi-empirical models as well as experimental studies. Methods for studying nonlinear effects and harmonic interaction effects, for perforates, using single tone excitation and Poly-harmonic distortion models or nonlinear scattering matrices are discussed. These techniques typically require measurements with a number of different acoustic loads. It would be more attractive to directly be able to extract the nonlinear acoustic properties from a more limited set of experiments using either random or periodic excitation. Multi input - single output techniques for nonlinear system identification using broadband random excitation has been tried with limited success. One reason is the mixing of the sound pressure signal incident from the acoustic source with the sound pressure transferred to higher frequencies by nonlinear effects at the perforate sample. The present paper includes an attempt to combine band-limited broadband excitation with Poly-harmonic distortion models or nonlinear scattering matrices describing the nonlinear transfer of energy to higher frequencies.

The Cremer impedance, first proposed by Cremer (Acustica 3, 1953) and then improved by Tester (JSV 28, 1973), refers to the locally reacting boundary condition that can maximize the attenuation of a certain acoustic mode in a uniform waveguide. One limitation in Tester's work is that it simplified the analysis on the effect of flow by only considering high frequencies or the 'well cut-on' modes. This approximation is reasonable for large duct applications, e.g., aero-engines, but not for many other cases of interest such as the vehicle intake and exhaust systems. A recent modification done by Kabral et al. (Acta Acustica united with Acustica 102, 2016) has removed this limitation and investigated the 'exact' solution of Cremer impedance, which reveals an appreciable difference between the exact and classic solution in the low frequency range. A measurement campaign is here carried out to experimentally demonstrate such difference. In addition, the exact solution is found to exhibit some special properties at very low frequencies, e.g., a negative resistance. One can question if this negative resistance is physically correct or an artefact of the assumption of a plug flow profile and the use of the so-called Ingard-Myers boundary condition. To investigate this the Cremer solution is here extended to the case with a more general and realistic flow profile, using a modified version of the Ingard-Myers condition suggested by Brambley (AIAA J 49(6), 2011).

In recent years, much effort has been devoted to find the “optimum impedance” i.e. the impedance that results in the maximum modal decay rate in flow duct acoustics. Although such analysis can be carried out by means of numerical simulations, analytical expressions can also be derived in order to predict the optimum impedance. Previous works have been concerned over the optimum impedance of higher order modes in rectangular ducts with uniform flow. In this work, the analysis is expanded to circular and rectangular ducts for both uniform and sheared inviscid flows. Focus is given on a typical aero-engine intake and flight conditions. It is shown that, in certain conditions, the optimum impedance is affected even by the presence of a small boundary layer thickness. It is also noted that for low Helmholtz numbers the optimum impedance may have a negative resistance.

Air pollution caused by exhaust particulate matter (PM) from vehicular traffic is a major health issue. Increasingly strict regulations of vehicle emission have been introduced and efforts have been put on both the suppression of particulate formation inside the engine cylinders and the development of after-treatment technologies such as filters. With modern direct injected engines that produce a large number of really small sub-micron particles, the focus has increased even further and now also includes a number count.The problem of calculating particle trajectories in flow ducts like vehicle exhaust systems is challenging but important to further improve the technology. The interaction between particles and oscillating flows may lead to the formation of particle groups (regions where the particle concentration is increased), yielding a possibility of realizing particle agglomeration. The oscillating flow may simply be hydrodynamic or as assumed here: the flow oscillations are created by sound propagation rather than hydrodynamic approaches. An analysis is presented which gives the relationship between the speed of sound, the mean flow velocity and the amplitude of the acoustic particle velocity for particle agglomeration to be feasible. It is shown that it can be achieved if the convective speed of sound is reduced to the same order as the mean flow velocity. It is therefore suggested to use the so-called acoustic metamaterials, which can help control, direct and manipulate sound waves. At this stage a phenomenological 1D model is used for the analysis, which allows the authors to build an understanding of the effect of the sound waves and flow oscillations on particle motion and paves the way for further analysis on particle agglomeration.