Greater use and reuse of electric vehicle batteries is needed for the ongoing electrification of the transport sector towards a net-zero and carbon-low economy. Such battery second-life uses and later recycling requires an ecosystem with actors having reliable battery tracking and equitably sharing usage information. However, existing studies do not prescribe viable solutions to such circular ecosystems. Therefore, this study explores the electric vehicle battery ecosystem's structures, actors, and processes that may enable battery circularity. The study was conducted on one global electric vehicle battery supply chain in the heavy-duty and commercial vehicle sector. It covers all phases of the battery journey. Primary data was collected through interviews and observations, and supported by secondary documentary data. For contribution, while the existing literature on battery circularity largely focuses on technology choices for information transparency, sharing and tracking, our study develops a value model that identifies key considerations for creating a viable electric vehicle battery ecosystem and the challenges that participating actors need to resolve. Practically, the findings demonstrate the importance of actors being adaptive in all parts of EVB circularity development, and it highlights the critical role the OEM has to ensure that equitable value sharing occurs among the various partners.

Purpose

Although technologies such as blockchain (BCT) hold great potential to improve global food supply chains (GFSCs), our understanding of BCT use in GFSCs remains limited. The purpose of this study is to broaden BCT discussions by exploring its benefits and challenges across the entire GFSC.

Design/methodology/approach

Qualitative interviews with 23 industry experts were used to identify and comprehend the nuanced issues with BCT application in GFSCs.

Findings

The study identifies 21 perceived benefits and challenges with BCT use in GFSCs, including the benefit of broader data incentives beyond BCT use and the challenge of reluctance to assume dominant roles among the GFSC actors.

Originality/value

While prior studies mostly focused on BCT use for traceability and food safety in the GFSC midstream, this study extends the scope to include upstream and midstream actors. It highlights socio-economic benefits for traditionally disadvantaged farmers in the upstream and normative challenges to its adoption in the GFSC midstream and downstream. It also identifies three paradoxes emerging with BCT use in the GFSCs including the paradoxes of food technology, transparency and de-centralization.

While there is increasing popularity and interest in blockchain use, the focus is largely on the technology itself and its potential benefits. However, successful exploitation of the technology requires an appropriate business ecosystem in which the technology is applied. Understanding this and the role actors have within it is essential for blockchain use to be successful. The different companies in its ecosystem are treated as homogenous, while in reality, they often have very different roles in the system and operate under different conditions. In this article, we identify four groups within a business ecosystem based on their level of dominance and transparency. These two categories play a key role in defining an appropriate blockchain strategy, showing that while some actors directly benefit from blockchain use, others will only do so by adjusting their offerings. We provide practitioners with a method for assessing a suitable blockchain strategy based on their role within their business ecosystems. We also highlight issues around data ownership, initial technology investment, and the interaction with new entrants. For academics, we critically identify and assess the characteristics of business ecosystem groups and the related implications of blockchain adoption.

Blockchain technologies can support traceability, transparency and trust among participants. This has primarily been explored in established supply chains and not in the growing use of business networks or ecosystems, which is a notable limitation since supply chains typically are organised with a dominant actor that ensures common information systems and standards that negate blockchain benefits. Hence, this study explores the design of a blockchain-based collaborative framework for resource sharing using smart contracts. These are particularly well-suited for supporting operations in broader networks or ecosystems beyond supply chains with established collaborations and hierarchies. Based on a systematic literature review, a demonstrator framework was developed for stakeholder interactions through a procurement and distribution unit backed with blockchain technology. The framework consists of (a) network architecture to demonstrate partner interactions; (b) rules for network working principles based on supply collaboration requirements; (c) UML diagram to define smart contract interaction sequence; and (d) algorithm for smart contract network verification and validation. Applicability of these smart contracts was verified by deployment on an Ethereum blockchain. The demonstrator framework ensures quality and data authenticity in supply networks, so it is useful for effective resource utilisation in networks where outsourcing and production surpluses are major issues.