This article explores the efforts of Germany and Switzerland, from 1965 to 1972, to mitigate thermal pollution caused by nuclear power plants along the Aare and Rhine Rivers. Despite the initial promise of nuclear energy, concerns about its environmental impact, specifically on water quality, led both countries to collaboratively set temperature limits for cooling water discharge from nuclear power plants. In contrast to the predominant focus on anti-nuclear protests in the existing literature, this article highlights the cooperative aspects of cross-border management, revealing a concerted effort to balance the utilisation of river cooling capacities while safeguarding water quality. The article contributes to the evolving field of water diplomacy, challenging the notion of inevitable conflicts by showcasing a joint approach to addressing shared environmental challenges.

The sustainability of nuclear energy amidst climate change and environmental regulations poses critical challenges, particularly in European contexts where major rivers like the Rhine, the Danube, and the Rhône are experiencing declining water levels and rising temperatures. We scrutinise the operational difficulties nuclear power plants encounter, arising from insufficient cooling water and environmental mandates that prevent the discharge of overly warm cooling water into rivers. These conditions have led to partial or full shutdowns of nuclear facilities across France, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain, Romania, and other countries, emphasising the tension between nuclear energy as a low-carbon solution and its environmental impacts. We explore the concept of sustainability in the context of riverine nuclear energy from three angles: technical challenges posed by water scarcity, regulatory constraints on cooling water temperatures, and the ecological impacts of thermal discharges on riverine ecosystems. In our analysis we reveal an emerging contradiction between ensuring electricity supply and adhering to environmental protections, highlighting the need for a reevaluation of nuclear energy's role in a future sustainable energy landscape.

»Geographien der Kernenergie. Eine Einführung«. Nuclear energy has long attracted the attention of scholars in the humanities and social sciences. With this HSR Special Issue, we would like to push the scholarly frontier by highlighting the geographies of nuclear energy in the past and present. Nuclear energy is inherently interwoven with geography. We argue that to fully appreciate and grasp nuclear energy’s geographical and spatial dimensions, approaches from a range of disciplinary and interdisciplinary fields are needed. This special issue thus includes contributions from history, geography, political science, technology assessment, science and technology studies (STS), and other fields. This article introduces this topic by outlining the state of the art of the geographies of nuclear energy and discusses different conceptual frameworks of how to understand nuclear-space interactions. In addition, the individual articles in this issue are briefly presented here and discussed within the research context. The articles themselves cover the geography of nuclear energy from beginning to end: from the mining of uranium, the planning and construction of nuclear power plants, the formation of public resistance, and the cooling of nuclear energy sites as well as the evolution of research centres and, last but not least, the political control and storage of nuclear waste. The collection of articles published here were part of the double session “Geographies of Nuclear Energy,” presented at the RGSIBG Annual International Conference 2021, and of the session “Atomic Rivers,” presented at the ESEH Conference 2023.

Nuklearisierte Flussgebiete: Konflikt und Kooperation an Rhein, Donau und Elbe«. This article analyses the historical geography of nuclear energy through the spatial lens of river basins. Approximately half of the world’s nuclear power plants were built along one or the other river. There, they gave rise to both conflict and cooperation. Drawing on the theoretical notion of water interaction, which takes into account relations of both conflictual and cooperative nature, we distinguish between such relations in three dimensions: space, environment, and infrastructure. The spatial dimension gravitates around social and political processes where proximity and distance are at the heart, often linked to the search for suitable sites for nuclear construction. The environmental dimension refers to conflict and cooperation around the radioactive and thermal pollution of waterways. The infrastructural dimension, finally, highlights how nuclear power plant builders, when they arrived from the 1950s onwards, had to relate to pre-existing infrastructural features of the rivers, which sometimes led to clashes with other actors and sometimes to more cooperative forms of interaction. In empirical terms, we focus on three European river basins that came to play particularly important roles in European nuclear history: those of the Rhine, Danube, and Elbe.

The water and nuclear energy sectors are intricately and interdependently entwined. In this thesis, the relationship between water and nuclear energy is being examined specifically in the Rhine River basin from the 1950s to the contemporary period. Through a series of four research articles, this work scrutinises the complex interaction between nuclear development and water management, emphasising the critical yet often undervalued role of water in the nuclear energy sector. This investigation gains particular relevance in the context of climate change, which heightens the environmental impact of nuclear power as well as the vulnerability of nuclear power plants to extreme weather events, such as heatwaves.

A central thesis argument is the contemporary societal undervaluation of water for nuclear energy, contrasted with its more recognised value in the mid-20th century. This shift in perception is especially pertinent as extreme weather conditions underscore the need to reassess water's worth. Employing a transnational and interconnected approach, this research challenges conventional national narratives and underscores the significance of cooperative and shared resource management along the Rhine. This paradigm serves as a blueprint for future transnational collaborations, particularly within the European sphere.

The analysis explores various facets of water-nuclear-interactions, including the selection of riverine sites for nuclear power plants, the challenges and conflicts arising from these decisions, and specific case studies on risk perception, water diplomacy, and the sustainability of nuclear power in the age of climate change. These discussions are not only rooted in historical analysis but also engage with contemporary debates about the environmental sustainability of nuclear energy and its role in a future marked by increasing climatic uncertainties.

In summary, this thesis offers a novel perspective on the dynamic relationship between water and nuclear energy, advocating for a renewed appreciation of water as a crucial but limited resource. It highlights the necessity for sustainable, forward-thinking approaches to nuclear  energy development. As we confront the challenges of climate change, the insights from this research present valuable lessons on the importance of transnational cooperation, comprehensive risk assessment, and the meticulous consideration of environmental impacts in shaping future energy policy. Thus, this work illuminates the past while providing guidance for navigating the complex interdependencies between water and nuclear energy in the future.

Vatten- och kärnenergisektorerna är tätt sammanflätade och ömsesidigt beroende av varandra. I denna avhandling undersöks förhållandet mellan vatten och kärnenergi specifikt i Rhenflodens avrinningsområde från 1950-talet till idag. Genom en serie av fyra forskningsartiklar granskas det komplexa samspelet mellan kärnkraftsutveckling och vattenförvaltning, med betoning på vattnets kritiska men ofta undervärderade roll i kärnkraftssektorn. Denna undersökning blir särskilt relevant i samband med klimatförändringarna, som ökar kärnkraftens miljöpåverkan och kärnkraftverkens sårbarhet för extrema väderhändelser, t.ex. värmeböljor.

Ett centralt argument i avhandlingen är den nutida samhälleliga undervärderingen av vatten för kärnenergi, i kontrast till dess mer erkända värde i mitten av 1900-talet. Detta skifte i uppfattning är särskilt relevant eftersom extrema väderförhållanden understryker behovet av att ompröva vattnets värde. Genom att använda ett transnationellt och sammanlänkat tillvägagångssätt utmanar denna forskning konventionella nationella berättelser och understryker betydelsen av kooperativ och delad resursförvaltning längs Rhen. Detta paradigm fungerar som en plan för framtida transnationella samarbeten, särskilt inom den europeiska sfären.

I analysen undersöks olika aspekter av samspelet mellan kärnenergi och vatten. Det handlar bland annat om valet av platser för kärnkraftverk vid floder, de utmaningar och konflikter som uppstår till följd av dessa beslut, samt specifika fallstudier om riskuppfattning, vattendiplomati och kärnkraftens hållbarhet i klimatförändringarnas tidsålder. Diskussionerna är inte bara förankrade i historiska analyser, utan tar också upp aktuella debatter om kärnkraftens miljömässiga hållbarhet och dess roll i en framtid som kännetecknas av ökande klimatosäkerhet.

Sammanfattningsvis erbjuder denna avhandling ett nytt perspektiv på det dynamiska förhållandet mellan vatten och kärnenergi, och förespråkar en förnyad uppskattning av vatten som en viktig men begränsad resurs. Den belyser nödvändigheten av hållbara och framåtblickande strategier för utveckling av kärnenergi. När vi nu står inför utmaningarna med klimatförändringarna ger insikterna från denna forskning värdefulla lärdomar om vikten av transnationellt samarbete, omfattande riskbedömning och noggrant övervägande av miljöpåverkan vid utformningen av framtida energipolitik. På så sätt belyser detta arbete det förflutna samtidigt som det ger vägledning för att navigera i de komplexa ömsesidiga beroendena mellan vatten och kärnenergi i framtiden.

Der Wasser- und der Kernenergiesektor sind eng miteinander verflochten und voneinander abhängig. In dieser Arbeit wird das Verhältnis von Wasser und Kernenergie speziell im Rheineinzugsgebiet von den 1950er Jahren bis heute untersucht. In einer Reihe von vier wissenschaftlichen Artikeln wird die komplexe Wechselwirkung zwischen der Entwicklung der Kernenergie und der Wasserwirtschaft analysiert, wobei die kritische, aber oft unterbewertete Rolle des Wassers im Kernenergiesektor hervorgehoben wird. Diese Dissertation gewinnt besondere Relevanz im Kontext des Klimawandels, der die Umweltauswirkungen der Kernenergie sowie die Anfälligkeit von Kernkraftwerken für extreme Wetterereignisse wie Hitzewellen verstärkt.

Ein zentrales Argument ist die gegenwärtige gesellschaftliche Geringschätzung von Wasser in Relation zur Kernenergie im Gegensatz zu seinem anerkannten Wert in der Mitte des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts. Diese veränderte Wahrnehmung ist besonders relevant, da extreme Wetterbedingungen die Notwendigkeit unterstreichen, den Wert des Wassers neu zu bestimmen. Durch die Anwendung eines transnationalen und vernetzten Ansatzes stellt diese Arbeit gängige nationale Perspektiven in Frage und unterstreicht die Bedeutung eines kooperativen und gemeinsamen Ressourcenmanagements entlang des Rheins. Dieses Paradigma dient als Blaupause für zukünftige transnationale Kooperationen, insbesondere im europäischen Raum. 

In der Analyse werden verschiedene Facetten der Wechselwirkungen zwischen Kernenergie und Wasser untersucht. Dazu gehören die Auswahl von Kernkraftwerksstandorten an Flüssen, die Herausforderungen und Konflikte, die sich aus diesen Entscheidungen ergeben, sowie spezifische Fallstudien über Risikowahrnehmung, Wasserdiplomatie und die Nachhaltigkeit der Kernenergie im Zeitalter des Klimawandels. Diese Diskussionen sind nicht nur in der historischen Analyse verwurzelt, sondern greifen auch die aktuellen Debatten über die ökologische Nachhaltigkeit der Kernenergie und ihre Rolle in einer Zukunft auf, die durch zunehmende klimatische Unsicherheiten gekennzeichnet ist.

Zusammenfassend bietet diese Dissertation eine neue Perspektive auf die dynamische Beziehung zwischen Wasser und Kernenergie und plädiert für eine neue Wertschätzung von Wasser als lebenswichtige, aber begrenzte Ressource. Sie unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit  nachhaltiger, zukunftsorientierter Ansätze für die Entwicklung der Kernenergie. Angesichts der Herausforderungen des Klimawandels liefern die Ergebnisse dieser Forschung wertvolle Erkenntnisse über die Bedeutung transnationaler Zusammenarbeit, umfassender Risikobewertungen und der sorgfältigen Berücksichtigung von Umweltauswirkungen bei der Gestaltung der künftigen Energiepolitik. So beleuchtet diese Arbeit die Vergangenheit und bietet gleichzeitig eine Anleitung für die Navigation durch die komplexen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Wasser und Kernenergie in der Zukunft.

The increasingly noticeable effects of climate change are leading to increased advocacy of nuclear energy. Even though the so-called nuclear renaissance has come to an abrupt halt, especially due to the Fukushima disaster, proponents of nuclear energy are promoting it as an inevitable solution to decarbonise electricity production. Yet it has been known since the 1960s that waste heat from nuclear power plants has devastating effects on river ecosystems. Even though countries like Germany and Switzerland have taken measures to limit the thermal load of the Rhine and Aare, the Rhine is still the most thermally polluted river in the world in relation to its water resources. This raises the question of whether the socio-technical promise of sustainability of the current nuclear power plants is at all tenable from a river perspective.

On this basis, this paper explores the (un)sustainability of riverine nuclear energy in past, present, and future, tracing its evolution over time from the early days of nuclear planning and construction to today’s – as of yet unfulfilled – dreams of a “nuclear renaissance”. We look at several European rivers that underwent nuclearization from the 1950s onwards, reconstructing the often-harsh struggles among a diverse group of actors for access to sufficient volumes of cooling water, the fight against “thermal pollution”, the negotiations about allowed temperature limits, and the emergence of technical fixes such as cooling towers and artificial lakes as – partly successful, partly failed – solutions to such problems.

Nuclear power plants require immense amounts of water to cool the reactors. Therefore, NPPs are almost exclusively built near rivers, lakes, and the sea. In the 1960s and 1970s, Switzerland and Germany had grandiose plans to nuclearise the Rhine and its tributaries. These plans came at a time when the environmental status of the Rhine was deteriorating, which did not go unnoticed. This forced the riparians to negotiate the limited cooling resources and to create new knowledge on the thermal resilience of the Rhine as well as the Aare. Earlier literature and coverage of the case was tending towards a potential escalation of the negotiations. There was talk in newspapers of a “cooling water war” between Germany and Switzerland. So far, research on NPPs on borders mostly focused on anti-nuclear protest and political conflicts relating to nuclear projects. In most cases, cooperation was limited to technical cooperation in the construction and operation of NPPs and in environmental monitoring. By contrast, this article demonstrates the close cooperation between two countries in finding a solution for the fair allocation of the scarce resource of cooling water which worked for both. The focus of this article is on the informative discussions and the subsequent negotiations on the fair distribution of heat load capacity and cooling water between the individual countries within the framework of water diplomacy and water regimes.

Nuclear power plants, like coal-fired power plants, rely on immense amounts of cooling water. For this reason, these power plants are usually built close to large water bodies such as the Rhine River. In the 1960s and 1970s, energy companies were tempted to build nuclear power plants without external cooling systems as the water resources of the Rhine were deemed to be sufficient. Especially Switzerland had ambitious plans for developing a nuclear power park, but France and Germany were equally interested in the nuclear exploitation of the Rhine. Switzerland, France, Germany and the Netherlands planned to build roughly around 25 nuclear power plants in the Rhine River basin (including the Aare and the Moselle), which would have made the Rhine one of the most nuclearised river basins in the world. The different national plans collided with each other at times and led to conflicts over water resources between the riparians.

This paper deals with the problem of fair water allocation between Germany and Switzerland in the 1960s and 1970s. While Germany wanted to equally share the water of the Rhine for cooling purposes, Switzerland claimed the water of the Aare fully, which is the water richest tributary of the Rhine. The different perspectives on water ownership and the extent to which natural resources could be fairly distributed led to the establishment of a new cooling water regime on the High Rhine. In this article, the different risk perceptions as well as conflicts and debates of the individual actors are examined in more detail.

This article traces the historical evolution of risk perception around the Nuclear Research Centre Karlsruhe, Germany, from 1956 to 1997. It does so by targeting the evolution of water-related risks. Federal hopes in the postwar era that the Nuclear Research Centre would bring progress and prosperity clashed with local values and local perception of nuclear engineering as dangerous to health and the environment. Various conflicts arose and opponents made use of their past lived-knowledge to foster their arguments against future decision-making, mobilizing stories from the past to shape the future. The conflict culminated in the 1990s, when the municipality decided to lease the Centre's waterworks for future drinking water supply. The main argument of the article is that even though the public discourse shifted over the years from water pollution toward greater risks such as nuclear meltdowns, the local risk perception stayed with the water-related risks. The article shows how the locals perceived and narrated their risk perception against the decision-making of authorities as well as against the reasoning of scientists and experts.