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Exploring affordability in concept generation for complex defence products
KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.).ORCID iD: 0000-0002-4004-7490
2022 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

National defence budgets face pressure from intergenerational escalating costs for complex defence products, such as fighter aircraft and submarines. These escalating costs originate from ever-increasing performance requirements due to the competitive nature of warfare. In combat, only winning is good enough. Therefore, the products’ performance is considered crucial for gaining an edge over an opponent. 

As the continuous development of ever-costlier complex defence products is not sustainable, it is high time for a path change towards affordability, meaning less costly products without any compromises in terms of operational requirements. However, the fact that this cost escalation has long been recognised as unsustainable indicates that a path change towards affordability will not be easy to achieve. Such a path change will likely require radical changes in product concepts – even though costs might be reduced in other ways, product concepts are believed to have the greatest potential. 

In accordance with this assumption, this thesis suggest that the phenomenon of continuous generation of ever-costlier complex defence concepts is ultimately sealed in the front end of innovation, where opportunities are identified and product concepts are defined. Accordingly, this thesis aims to explore how firms and customers can influence activities in the front end of innovation in order to successfully manage the affordability of complex defence products. 

This aim is approached through phenomenon-driven research performed in a set of four concatenated studies, represented by five papers. By letting successive studies be informed by preceding studies, new knowledge and theory are added to this under-researched topic. Empirically, several factors and aspects influencing the front end of innovation are identified as potential barriers to or enablers of path changes towards affordability. In addition, different measures that companies and customers can adopt to support such path changes are proposed. 

The thesis contributes to extant theory by providing a definition of affordability adapted to complex defence products, and by contrasting affordability with established concepts and methods aimed at making products less costly. Furthermore, benefits and deficiencies in the industry’s handling of concept generation for complex defence products are highlighted from an affordability perspective, and the influence of specific characteristics on path changes towards affordability in relation to complex defence equipment is described and discussed. Finally, conditions supporting affordability related to opportunities, knowledge and motivations are described, and the benefits of providing those generating complex capability-oriented concepts with cost-related information are demonstrated.

In addition to these contributions to theory, this thesis has several implications for the practice of companies and governmental customers. It highlights measures that these two sets of actors can take to shape conditions and, thereby, influence key activities in the front end of innovation to generate complex defence-product concepts that meet affordability criteria. These suggested measures constitute an embryo of an explicit approach to affordability management. 

Abstract [sv]

Nationella försvarsbudgetar är under press från de kontinuerliga kostnadsökningar som varje ny produktgeneration av komplex försvarsmateriel medför, t.ex. stridsflygplan och ubåtar. Dessa kostnadsökningar kommer av ständigt ökade prestandakrav vilka grundar sig i krigets natur som innebär att endast vinna är gott nog, och på grund av att prestandan på materielen anses ha en avgörande betydelse för att nå ett övertag över en fiende.

Denna kostnadsutveckling för komplex försvarsmateriel är uppenbart inte hållbar i längden vilket innebär att det är hög tid att byta till ett utvecklingsspår som leder mot ”affordability”, det vill säga produkter som medför lägre kostnader utan att för den delen kompromissa operativa krav. Eftersom kostnadsutvecklingen ändå har fortsatt trots att den ansetts vara ohållbar sedan lång tid tillbaka, så indikerar det att en kursändring mot ”affordability” inte sker helt enkelt. Det antas därför att en kursändring mot ”affordability” kräver radikala förändringar på produktkonceptnivå, eftersom det är produktkoncepten som anses medge den största potentialen för kostnadsreduktioner, även om kostnader till del även rimligen skulle kunna reduceras på andra sätt.

I enlighet med detta antagande föreslås det att fenomenet att allt dyrare generationer komplex försvarsmateriel utvecklas slutligen avgörs i ”front end of innovation”, där möjligheter identifieras och produktkoncept definieras. Av den anledningen är syftet med den här avhandlingen att undersöka hur företag och kunder kan påverka aktiviteterna i ”front end of innovation” avseende komplex försvarsmateriel, så att dessa aktiviteter på ett framgångsrikt omhändertar ”affordability”.

Detta syfte eftersträvades att uppnås genom en fenomendriven forskning som genomfördes med hjälp av fyra sammanlänkade studier, resulterande i fem artiklar. Genom strategin att låta efterföljande studier inriktas av föregående studier har ny kunskap och teori successivt kunnat adderas till detta sedan tidigare underutforskade område. Ur ett empiriskt underlag har ett antal faktorer och aspekter som påverkar ”front end of innovation” kunnat identifieras att utgöra hinder eller stöd för kursändringar mot ”affordability”. Dessutom har det föreslagits olika åtgärder som företag och kunder kan vidta för att stödja ”affordability”.

Avhandlingen bidrar till teoribildning genom en definition av ”affordability” som är anpassad för komplex försvarsmateriel, och genom att kontrastera ”affordability” mot etablerade koncept och metoder som på olika sätt syftar till att reducera produkters kostnader. Dessutom presenteras, från ett ”affordability” perspektiv, positiva och negativa aspekter avseende hur försvarsindustrin genomför konceptgenerering av komplex försvarsmateriel idag, samt hur specifik karaktäristik för komplex försvarsmateriel påverkar sannolikheten för kursändringar mot ”affordability”. Slutligen, beskrivs olika förhållanden, kopplade till möjligheter, kunskap och motivation, som föreslås stödja ”affordability”, samt betydelsen av att de som generar förmågeorienterade koncept erhåller kostnadsrelaterad information.

Utöver dessa bidrag till teorin så föreslås även hur företag och statliga kunder kan vidta olika åtgärder för att skapa förutsättningar för nyckelprocesserna i ”front end of innovation” att generera komplexa försvarsprodukter som möter kriterierna för ”affordability”. Dessa föreslagna åtgärder utgör därmed ett embryo till ett explicit tillvägagångssätt avseende ”affordability” management.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2022.
Series
TRITA-ITM-AVL ; 2022:17
Keywords [en]
Affordability, complex product systems, concept generation, CoPS, defence, front end of innovation, innovation management, product development, tournament goods
National Category
Other Mechanical Engineering
Research subject
Machine Design
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-312130ISBN: 978-91-8040-264-4 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-312130DiVA, id: diva2:1657728
Public defence
2022-06-03, E3 / https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/63746305538, Osquars backe 14, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2022-05-13 Created: 2022-05-12 Last updated: 2022-06-25Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION IN COMPLEX PRODUCT SYSTEMS (COPS): INFLUENCING CHARACTERISTICS AND CONDITIONS
Open this publication in new window or tab >>DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION IN COMPLEX PRODUCT SYSTEMS (COPS): INFLUENCING CHARACTERISTICS AND CONDITIONS
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Complex product systems (CoPS) tend to get more complex for every new productgeneration, which for some product categories imply cumbersome escalating costs. Forthese products, promises of lowered costs by disruptive innovation certainly areappealing, but frequently deluding. Therefore, this paper aims at exploring specific CoPScharacteristics and conditions influencing companies’ propensity to develop disruptiveproducts, and to derive related managerial implications. This is performed by analysingfour case studies of CoPS product development in four different industrial sectors. Thestudy suggests that specific characteristics and conditions in the CoPS setting influenceproduct development management to aim at incremental improvements of earlier productconcepts, whereby disruptive innovations in reality rarely get a chance. Moreover, it isfound that barriers for disruptive innovation in CoPS classified as tournament goods areconsidered even higher, because this product category generally do not offer anyperformance oversupply.

Keywords
affordability, CoPS, disruptive innovation, product development, tournament goods.
National Category
Social Sciences
Research subject
Industrial Engineering and Management
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-311427 (URN)
Note

QC 20220502

Available from: 2022-04-28 Created: 2022-04-28 Last updated: 2022-06-25Bibliographically approved
2. Managing affordability in concept development of complex product systems (CoPS)
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Managing affordability in concept development of complex product systems (CoPS)
2023 (English)In: Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, ISSN 0953-7325, E-ISSN 1465-3990, Vol. 35, no 1, p. 93-106Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This study originates in a recognised unsustainable cost escalation for complex defence equipment. In order to understand how such cost escalation for complex product systems (CoPS) can be avoided, this study comparatively explores four different industrial sectors – energy, transportation, healthcare and defence – with and without intergenerational increasing costs, represented by four international companies. The results, collected from studying the development of one of each company’s products, reveal some characteristic differences in market factors between those sectors and companies having problems with intergenerational escalating costs and customer affordability, as compared to other sectors and companies. It is suggested that dependent on market characteristics, it might be necessary to actively manage affordability when CoPS are developed. Efforts made by the companies to make products more affordable were identified, and several factors enabling and disabling the development of less costly products without compromising customer needs were explored. Further, the implications of affordability management in a CoPS setting are elaborated on.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Informa UK Limited, 2023
Keywords
affordability, CoPS, concept development, product development
National Category
Other Engineering and Technologies
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-299852 (URN)10.1080/09537325.2021.1968371 (DOI)000685998800001 ()2-s2.0-85113159745 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250327

Available from: 2021-08-18 Created: 2021-08-18 Last updated: 2025-03-27Bibliographically approved
3. Inducing Affordability?: Observations From An Experimental Study Of Concept Generation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Inducing Affordability?: Observations From An Experimental Study Of Concept Generation
2021 (English)Conference paper, Oral presentation with published abstract (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Early preliminary concepts are claimed to have a profound impact on the final product. Since these concepts often are based on intuitive judgements, it is important that these judgements are appropriate for the desired outcome. Intuition is derived from what one brings to mind, and consequently, the access to information is important for making relevant judgements. Therefore, when a departure from a present path of development is sought for, access to new information is likely to be required. Results from an experimental study, addressing affordability and concept generation, indicated that individuals were influenced, by the provision of selective information, to make more cost considerations and even to change approach when generating new concepts. It was further recognized that weak abilities to estimate costs in a lifecycle and capability perspective likely hampered low-cost ambitions. The findings from this study are suggested to contribute to theory on product development, and to support affordability when new products are developed.

Keywords
affordability, concept generation, intuition, priming
National Category
Engineering and Technology Other Engineering and Technologies
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-303140 (URN)
Conference
22nd CINet Conference Organizing innovation for a sustainable future
Note

QC 20211011

Available from: 2021-10-07 Created: 2021-10-07 Last updated: 2022-06-25Bibliographically approved
4. Affordability Aspects in the Development of Defence Equipment: Case Studies of Concept Generation in the Defence Industry
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Affordability Aspects in the Development of Defence Equipment: Case Studies of Concept Generation in the Defence Industry
2021 (English)In: Defence and Peace Economics, ISSN 1024-2694, E-ISSN 1476-8267, Vol. 32, no 7, p. 847-863Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Cost escalation for many complex defence equipment is arguably not sustainable. Customer driven requirements have led to an exponential increase in costs by pushing frontiers of technology to support primarily incremental improvements of traditional equipment concepts. Accordingly, affordability has become a more discussed subject in defence acquisition. This paper addresses the process of generating complex defence equipment concepts. The purpose is to explore how affordability is managed in that process and to identify possible leads to how an unsustainable cost escalation for this type of equipment can be curbed. This is done by studying two cases of concept generation of future combat air equipment systems from a company process perspective. This applied micro perspective on cost escalation showed that none of the concepts generated in these two cases were assessed to curb the cost escalation. Further, the innovation model for the generated concepts, with only one notable exception, was incremental. Nevertheless, the empirical observations from these two cases offer leads on how to potentially foster a more innovative and affordability-oriented concept generation process for future defence equipment, as well as indicating avenues for future research.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Informa UK Limited, 2021
Keywords
Affordability, concept development, defence equipment, innovation
National Category
Production Engineering, Human Work Science and Ergonomics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-274294 (URN)10.1080/10242694.2020.1733896 (DOI)000517374000001 ()2-s2.0-85080986186 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250318

Available from: 2020-07-06 Created: 2020-07-06 Last updated: 2025-03-18Bibliographically approved
5. Changing Path and Curbing Cost Escalation: Lessons Learnt from the Gripen Case
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Changing Path and Curbing Cost Escalation: Lessons Learnt from the Gripen Case
2021 (English)In: Defence and Peace Economics, ISSN 1024-2694, E-ISSN 1476-8267Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Extant theory suggests that paths of development, although identified as being unsustainable, might be difficult to depart from. The aim of this study has therefore been to explore and understand how a path change can be facilitated in a setting of complex product systems. A unique single case of product development that managed to curb an unsustainable intergenerational cost escalation for complex defence equipment has been studied. The study shows a relation between a path change and a challenging opportunity, and also indicates how this relation can be moderated by the company management and the customers. The study provides both theoretical and practical implications, supporting understanding and facilitation of path changes. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Routledge, 2021
Keywords
Complex products, cost escalation, defence equipment, path change
National Category
Production Engineering, Human Work Science and Ergonomics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-292834 (URN)10.1080/10242694.2020.1870310 (DOI)000605041200001 ()2-s2.0-85098866814 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20210415

Available from: 2021-04-15 Created: 2021-04-15 Last updated: 2022-06-25Bibliographically approved

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