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Intra-Individual Test-Retest Variation Regarding Venous Gas Bubble Formation During High Altitude Exposures.
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Environmental Physiology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Centre, SAPC. Saab.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-8130-3737
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Environmental Physiology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Centre, SAPC.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7985-5348
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Environmental Physiology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Centre, SAPC.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9738-9320
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Environmental Physiology.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-5991-0733
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(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

INTRODUCTION: Hypobaric decompression sickness remains a problem during high-altitude aviation. The prevalence of venous gas emboli (VGE) serves as a marker of decompression stress and has been used as a method in evaluating the safety/risk associated with aviation profiles and/or gas mixtures. However, information is lacking concerning the variability of VGE formation when exposed to the same hypobaric profile at different occasions. In this paper intra-individual test-retest variation regarding bubble formation during repeated hypobaric exposures is presented. The data can be used to determine the sample size needed for statistical power. 

METHOD: Nineteen male, non-smoking subjects volunteered for altitude exposures to 24,000 ft. VGE was measured using ultrasound scanning and scored according to the Eftedal-Brubakk (EB) scale. Intra-individual test-retest variation in bubble formation (maximum VGE) was evaluated in subjects exposed more than once to hypobaric pressure. The statistical reliability was examined between paired exposures using the Intraclass Correlation test. G*Power, version 3.1.9.6 was used for power calculations.

RESULTS: During repeated 20-30 and 70 min exposures to 24,000 ft 42% (n = 19, CI 23%-67%) respectively 29% (n = 7, CI 5%-70%) of the subjects varied between maximum EB scores <3 and ≥3. The sample size needed to detect 1 EB step between two paired exposures varied between 29-51 subjects.

CONCLUSION. The large intra-individual test-retest variations in bubble grades during repeated hypobaric exposures, highlight the need for relatively large numbers of subjects to reach statistical power for when there are no or small differences in decompression stress between the exposures.

National Category
Physiology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-299790OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-299790DiVA, id: diva2:1585646
Note

QC 20210820

Not duplicate with diva2:1633841

Available from: 2021-08-17 Created: 2021-08-17 Last updated: 2022-09-05Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Decompression strain during long-duration, high-altitude exposures: Effects of intermittent excursions to moderate altitude and inspired fractions of oxygen
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Decompression strain during long-duration, high-altitude exposures: Effects of intermittent excursions to moderate altitude and inspired fractions of oxygen
2021 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Today´s tactical demands and new technical solutions in fighter aircraft entail longer exposure periods at higher altitudes than before. A low cabin pressure protects pilots from pulmonary barotrauma in case of a sudden loss of cabin pressure, however it can also generate a supersaturation of nitrogen (N2) in the tissues, increasing the risks of bubble formation and decompression sickness (DCS). To be able to perform long-duration missions at high altitude, in-air refuelling is required, often performed at lower cabin altitudes between 15000-20000 ft. Therefore, the aim of the thesis was to explore different mechanisms that could affect decompressive strain during long and intermittent high altitude-exposures. In our experiments, upon which this thesis is based, we examined how ambient pressure and different breathing gas-mixtures affected the N2 washout and presence of venous gas emboli (VGE) as markers of decompressive strain, in particular during long-duration exposures. The thesis is based on four different studies and a short communication. The first two studies measured N2-washout during normoxic exposures. In studies I- IV, VGE were measured during normoxic or hyperoxic conditions with different ambient pressures. The results show that a high enough pressure increase compressed the existing bubbles and decreased the number of VGE before returning to high altitude. Hyperoxia alone did not protect subjects from VGE formation and DCS, whereas a combination of an early recompression during high-altitude exposures while breathing 100% O2 decreased VGE, probably by changing the bubble content from N2 to O2, making the bubbles unstable, probably reducing the risk for DCS returning to high altitude.

Abstract [sv]

Dagens taktiska krav och nya tekniska lösningar för stridsflygplan innebär att man flyger högre under längre perioder än tidigare. Ett lågt kabintryck upprätthålls för att skydda pilotens mot lungbristningar vid ett plötsligt tryckfall i kabinen, samtidigt som ett lågt omgivningstryck kan ge upphov till en övermättnad av kvävgas (N2) i kroppens vävnader. Om N2 ej transporteras från vävnaderna tillräckligt fort med cirkulationen och vädras ut genom lungorna, kan bubblor bildas och så kallad dekompressionssjuka (DCS) kan uppstå. För att kunna genomföra långvariga höghöjdsuppdrag utan avbrott måste lufttankning utföras och detta sker oftast på kabinhöjder motsvarande 15000-20000 ft.

Syftet med avhandlingen var att belysa olika mekanismer som kan påverka risken för dekompressionsstress vid långvarig och upprepad höghöjdsexponering.

I de experiment som avhandlingen grundar sig på, undersöktes hur olika omgivningstryck samt syrgasblandningar påverkar utsköljningen av N2 samt förekomsten av bubblor i blodet (VGE) som mått på dekompressionsstress, framförallt under långtidsexponeringar. Avhandlingen baseras på fyra experimentella delarbeten samt en metodutvärdering. De två första studierna skedde under normoxiska förhållanden där N2-utsköljning registrerades. VGE registrerades under alla fyra delarbete under normoxiska eller hyperoxiska förhållanden med varierande omgivningstryck. Resultaten visar att en tillräcklig tryckökning komprimerade och minskar VGE innan återgång till hög höjd. Enbart syrgasandning skyddade ej personer mot VGE-bildning och tryckfallssjuka emedan en kombination av tidig tryckökning under höghöjdsexponering tillsammans med andning av 100% syrgas reducerade förekomst av VGE, sannolikt genom ett utbyte av N2 mot O2 i bubblorna vilket gör dem mer instabila. Troligtvis kan detta minska risken för VGE samt DCS under påföljande höghöjdsexponering.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Solna: Kungliga Tekniska högskolan, 2021. p. 52
Series
TRITA-CBH-FOU ; 2021:28
National Category
Physiology
Research subject
Technology and Health
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-299864 (URN)978-91-7873-916-5 (ISBN)
Public defence
2021-09-17, https://kth-se.zoom.us/meeting/register/u5ctd-2oqjstGdPbI8Cfe2ewPXvGuUCpU4dW, Huddinge, Sweden, 10:00 (English)
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Note

QC 2021-08-19

Available from: 2021-08-19 Created: 2021-08-18 Last updated: 2022-09-05Bibliographically approved

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Ånell, RickardGrönkvist, MikaelEiken, OlaElia, AntonisGennser, Mikael

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