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Do Not Rely on Clock Randomization: A Side-Channel Attack on a Protected Hardware Implementation of AES
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Embedded systems.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-2349-3920
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Embedded systems, Electronic and embedded systems.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-0278-5986
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Embedded systems, Electronic and embedded systems.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-7382-9408
2023 (English)In: FPS 2022: Foundations and Practice of Security / [ed] Jourdan, GV Mounier, L Adams, C Sedes, F Garcia-Alfaro, J, Springer Nature , 2023, Vol. 13877, p. 38-53Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Clock randomization is one of the oldest countermeasures against side-channel attacks. Various implementations have been presented in the past, along with positive security evaluations. However, in this paper we show that it is possible to break countermeasures based on a randomized clock by sampling side-channel measurements at a frequency much higher than the encryption clock, synchronizing the traces with pre-processing, and targeting the beginning of the encryption. We demonstrate a deep learning-based side-channel attack on a protected FPGA implementation of AES which can recover a subkey from less than 500 power traces. In contrast to previous attacks on FPGA implementations of AES which targeted the last round, the presented attack uses the first round as the attack point. Any randomized clock countermeasure is significantly weakened by an attack on the first round because the effect of randomness accumulated over multiple encryption rounds is lost.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature , 2023. Vol. 13877, p. 38-53
Series
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, ISSN 0302-9743
Keywords [en]
Side-channel attack, Random Execution Time, Randomized Clock, Countermeasure, Oversampling, Deep Learning, FPGA, AES, Correlation Power Analysis
National Category
Computer Sciences
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-330516DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-30122-3_3ISI: 000999884200003Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85152529972OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-330516DiVA, id: diva2:1777924
Conference
15th International Symposium on Foundations and Practice of Security (FPS), DEC 12-14, 2022, Univ Ottawa, Ottawa, CANADA
Note

QC 20230630

Available from: 2023-06-30 Created: 2023-06-30 Last updated: 2024-05-22Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Towards Securing the FPGA Bitstream: Exploiting Vulnerabilities and Implementing Countermeasures
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Towards Securing the FPGA Bitstream: Exploiting Vulnerabilities and Implementing Countermeasures
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) are used across various industries due to their high performance, energy efficiency, and reconfigurability. However, the major advantage of reconfigurability is also a source of security challenges.The present doctoral thesis investigates the security vulnerabilities of the FPGA configuration file, i.e. the bitstream, focusing on the exploration and mitigation of targeted bitstream modification attacks. The results outlined in the seven chapters of the thesis are based on the appended collection of twelve papers. Out of those papers, seven present novel research on the topic of bitstream modification attacks and countermeasures, with the majority of contributions being on attacks. Four present novel research on the topic of FPGA-based countermeasures against side-channel analysis. The final paper presents a survey on bitstream modification attacks and countermeasures. The motivation behind the papers on side-channel countermeasures is to enhance the FPGA encryption schemes, as strong encryption can thwart targeted bitstream modification attacks. 

The attack vector of targeted bitstream modification is explored through a series of attacks against cryptographic FPGA implementations. The targets are popular stream ciphers (SNOW 3G, ACORN, and Trivium) and cryptographic primitives (an arbiter-based physical unclonable function and multi-ring-oscillator-based true random number generator). In the attacks on stream ciphers, the bitstream is modified to introduce faults that weaken the keystream by linearizing its generation process. A subsequent analysis of that faulty keystream reveals the secret key of the implementations. In the attacks on cryptographic primitives, the goal of the bitstream modification attack is to lower the bar or enable a side-channel analysis. The aim of the side-channel analysis is to predict the random output values produced by the primitives. To facilitate that, the bitstream modification attack identifies components in the bitstream that produce exploitable information leakage and creates multiple copies of them. The copies have the same values as the targets, but their outputs are not connected, thus having no impact on the functionality of the design. The study on bitstream modification is complemented with the introduction of low-cost obfuscation countermeasures and a general-purpose methodology against obfuscation based on constants. The methodology is able to defeat all the countermeasures we have previously defined, and its application extends to the general field of hardware design obfuscation.

On the topic of side-channel analysis countermeasures, the popular methodology of clock randomization is evaluated. The assumed side-channel analysis aims to extract the secret key of the advanced encryption standard (AES) block cipher. The evaluation reveales that clock randomization cannot offer protection when the side-channel measurements are sampled at a frequency significantly higher than the operational frequency of the device. In response to that, the clock randomization technique is coupled with encryption core duplication to form, a novel countermeasure called CRCD (clock randomization with encryption core duplication). The countermeasure is shown to effectively protect implementations of block ciphers such as AES, and post-quantum key encapsulation mechanisms such as CRYSTALS-Kyber. Further analysis of the countermeasure reveals a weakness that is exploited and finally patched in an updated implementation of CRCD.

Abstract [sv]

Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAer) används inom olika branscher på grund av deras höga prestanda, energieffektivitet och omkonfigurerbarhet. Dock är den stora fördelen med omkonfigurerbarhet också en källa till säkerhetsutmaningar.Denna doktorsavhandling undersöker säkerhetsbristerna i FPGA-konfigurationsfilen, d.v.s. bitströmmen, med fokus på utforskning och mildring av riktade bitströmsmodifieringsattacker. Resultaten som redogörs i avhandlingens sju kapitel baseras på en bilagd samling av tolv artiklar. Av dessa artiklar presenterar sju ny forskning om ämnet bitströmsmodifieringsattacker och motåtgärder, med majoriteten av bidragen om attacker. Fyra presenterar ny forskning om ämnet FPGA-baserade motåtgärder mot sidokanalsanalys. Den sista rapporten presenterar en översikt över bitströmsmodifieringsattacker och motåtgärder. Motivationen för rapporterna om sidokanalmotåtgärder är att förbättra FPGA-krypteringsscheman, eftersom stark kryptering kan förhindra riktade bitströmsmodifieringsattacker.

Attackvektorn för riktade bitströmsmodifieringsattacker utforskas genom en serie attacker mot kryptografiska FPGA-implementationer. Målen är populära flödes-chiffer (SNOW 3G, ACORN och Trivium) och kryptografiska primitiv (en arbiter-baserad fysiskt oklonbar funktion och en multi-ring-oscillator-baserad sann slumpmässig nummergenerator). I attackerna på strömkrypteringar modifieras bitströmmen för att introducera fel som försvagar keystreamen genom att linjärisera dess genereringsprocess. En efterföljande analys av den felaktiga keystreamen avslöjar den hemliga nyckeln för implementationerna. I attackerna på kryptografiska primitiv är målet med bitströmsmodi-\\fieringsattacken att sänka ribban eller möjliggöra en sidokanalsanalys. Målet med sidokanalsanalysen är att förutsäga de slumpmässiga utvärdena som produceras av primitiverna. För att underlätta detta identifierar bitströmsmodifieringsattacken komponenter i bitströmmen som producerar utnyttjbar informationsläckage och skapar fler kopior av dem. Kopiorna har samma värden som målen, men deras utgångar är inte anslutna, vilket inte påverkar designens funktionalitet. Studien om bitströmsmodifiering kompletteras med införandet av lågkostnadsförvirringsmotåtgärder och en allmän metodik mot förvirring baserad på konstanter. Metodiken kan besegra alla de motåtgärder vi tidigare definierat, och dess tillämpning sträcker sig till det allmänna området för hårdvarudesignförvirring.

På ämnet motåtgärder mot sidokanalsanalys utvärderas den populära metoden för klockslumpning. Den antagna sidokanalsanalysen syftar till att extrahera den hemliga nyckeln för blockkryptoalgoritmen advanced encryption standard (AES). Utvärderingen visar att klockslumpning inte kan erbjuda skydd när sidokanalsmätningarna samplas med en frekvens som är avsevärt högre än enhetens driftfrekvens. Som svar på detta kombineras tekniken för klockslumpning med duplication av krypteringskärnan för att bilda en ny motåtgärd som kallas CRCD (clock randomization with encryption core duplication). Motåtgärden har visat sig effektivt skydda implementationer av blockkrypteringar som AES och postkvantum nyckelinkapslingsmekanismer som CRYSTALS-Kyber. Ytterligare analys av motåtgärden avslöjar en svaghet som utnyttjas och slutligen åtgärdas i en uppdaterad implementation av CRCD.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2024. p. xxx, 152
Series
TRITA-EECS-AVL ; 2024:50
Keywords
FPGA, Bitstream, Security, Attack, Cipher, TRNG, PUF, Side-Channel Analysis, Machine Learning, Clock Randomization, FPGA, Bitström, Säkerhet, Attack, Krypto, TRNG, PUF, Sidkanalsanalys, Maskininlärning, Klockslumpning
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Research subject
Information and Communication Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-346665 (URN)978-91-8040-938-4 (ISBN)
Public defence
2024-06-12, Ka-Sal C (Sven-Olof Öhrvik), Kistagången 16, Kista, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 20240522

Available from: 2024-05-22 Created: 2024-05-22 Last updated: 2024-06-24Bibliographically approved

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Brisfors, MartinMoraitis, MichailDubrova, Elena

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