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Proteomic strategies for blood biomarker development in rare dystrophinopathies
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Protein Science, Systems Biology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Protein Science, Protein Technology.
2023 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) are two rare genetic disorders of the family dystrophinopathy. They are both caused by the lack of, or reduced production of, the protein dystrophin. Due to abnormal dystrophin expression, patients experience progressive loss of muscle mass and cardio-, respiratory- and sometimes cognitive complications. DMD is the more severe form of dystrophinopathy, which manifests in young children and leads to wheelchair confinement in early teens followed by bed confinement and a shortened life expectancy. Dystrophin expression is absent or at less than 3% in DMD patients, often due to frame-shift mutations which cause protein expression to stop pre-maturely. BMD patients, on the other hand, display a higher but variable expression of dystrophin, often with large internal truncations. This partial expression results in a milder phenotype than DMD with sometimes unaffected life expectancies compared to healthy individuals. In the past decade, there has been substantial research into therapies aiming at increasing dystrophin expression in DMD patients and thereby prolonging ambulation, with the first gene-therapy gaining regulatory approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in June 2023. Current regulatory approvals for treatments of DMD patients have relied on dystrophin quantification in muscle biopsies as a biomarker and surrogate endpoint to predict a possible benefit from treatment, but these tests require repeated collection of muscle biopsies. 

Biomarkers are biochemical or physiological laboratory tests that measure a biological processes or condition. There is a need for monitoring biomarkers in dystrophinopathies, as well as biomarkers which can be used to predict outcome in clinical trials. As patients are often young children, it is important to develop biomarkers from less invasive and more readily available biological samples than muscle biopsies, such as blood or urine.

In this thesis, we have used affinity proteomics and mass spectrometry to identify and validate biomarkers for monitoring disease progression in DMD and BMD patients from serum or plasma. The overall aim has been to identify biomarkers capable of distinguishing between patients with different levels of dystrophin expression and rates of disease progression in order to suggest gene-therapy pharmacodynamic biomarkers. In Paper I, we used suspension bead array (SBA) technology to identify biomarker candidates which reflect disease progression in DMD. Ten proteins were identified as related to disease progression. The ten biomarker candidates identified in Paper I were further analytically validated in Paper II using two orthogonal and absolute quantitative methods, parallel reaction monitoring mass spectrometry (PRM-MS) and sandwich immunoassays, which resulted in five analytically validated disease monitoring biomarkers for DMD (CA3, MYL3, LDHB, COL1A1 and FGG).

Dystrophin-restoring therapies build on the hypothesis that increasing expression of internally deleted dystrophin reduces disease severity. In BMD patients, partial expression of short dystrophin molecules results in a milder phenotype than in DMD patients lacking expression of dystrophin. However, there are some differences in the nature of disease progression between DMD and BMD. In Paper III, we used Data Independent Acquisition Mass Spectrometry (DIA-MS) to study proteomic similarities and differences between DMD and BMD disease progression. This study revealed some discrepancies between disease progression biomarker candidates in the two related disorders.

In Paper IV, we searched for blood biomarkers capable of reflecting changes in dystrophin expression during gene-therapy clinical trials. We identified ten proteins which correlated with dystrophin or microdystrophin expression in DMD mouse models. Out of these ten proteins, we identified that myosin light chain 3 (MYL3) declined steeper over time in dystrophinopathy patients with low or no dystrophin expression compared to patients with higher dystrophin expression. Two more biomarkers were identified in Paper IV as potentially related to dystrophin expression in muscle biopsies from both mouse models and patients. These were titin (TTN) and, interestingly, serum leakage of dystrophin. 

The possible presence of dystrophin in blood has not been well studied, and only one prior publication suggests that dystrophin may be a biomarker for DMD. Many DMD therapies currently in clinical trials aims at restoring dystrophin production and for those trials, the possibility of monitoring dystrophin leakage into blood could provide valuable information on therapeutic efficacy. In Paper V, we designed a proof-of-principle study to explore if dystrophin in blood can be a DMD biomarker. 

In conclusion, this thesis explores disease progression monitoring biomarkers and gene-therapy pharmacodynamic biomarkers for DMD and BMD. Three proteins, MYL3, TTN, and serum levels of dystrophin, are here suggested as possible gene-therapy pharmacodynamic biomarkers. 

Abstract [sv]

Duchenne muskeldystrofi (DMD) och Becker muskeldystrofi (BMD) är två ovanliga, genetiska sjukdomar som går under samlingsnamnet dystrofinopatier. Dystrofinopatier orsakas av att proteinet dystrofin antingen saknas helt eller uttrycks vid längre koncentration i muskler och hjärta än normalt. På grund utav onormalt dystrofinsyntes så förlorar patienter muskelmassa över tid samt upplever påverkan på hjärta och lungor. Ibland har patienter även nedsatt kognitiv förmåga. DMD är den allvarligare formen av dystrofinopati. De första symptomen märks redan i små barn och leder till förlorad förmåga att gå i yngre tonåren samt förkortad livslängd. I DMD uttrycks dystrofin i mindre än 3% än uttrycket i friska muskler, oftast som följd av mutationer som orsakar tidigt avslut av proteinsyntes (s.k. ramförskjutningsmutationer). BMD-patienter, å andra sidan, har ett något högre men variabelt uttryck av dystrofin jämfört med DMD och ofta i kombination med stora interna deletioner. Detta reducerade uttryck av dystrofin resulterar i en mildare fenotyp än DMD. Under det senaste decenniet har forskare fokuserat på att utveckla behandlingsmetoder som kan öka uttrycket av dystrofin i DMD-patienter och därmed förlänga patienternas livslängd samt även förlänga tiden då patienten kan gå självständigt. Den första genterapin för DMD godkändes av USA:s läkemedelsmyndighet Food and Drug Administration (FDA) i juni 2023, men saknar än så länge myndighetsgodkännande i Europa. Myndighetsgodkännanden för behandlingar av DMD har i flera fall baserats på att ett ökat inducerat dystrofinuttryck observerats i muskelbiopsier efter behandling, vilket enligt FDA sannolikt tyder på en klinisk fördel från behandlingen. Dessa tester kräver dock att patienten donerar upprepade muskelbiopsier. Dystrofinuttryck i muskel används här som en s.k. biomarkör

Biomarkörer är biokemiska eller fysiologiska laborativa tester som mäter en biologisk process eller tillstånd. Det finns idag ett behov av nya biomarkörer för att följa sjukdomsförlopp i dystrofinopatier samt biomarkörer som kan användas till att förutsäga utfall i kliniska studier. Eftersom denna patientgrupp ofta består av unga individer så är det viktigt att utveckla nya biomarkörer från mindre invasiva prov-material än muskelbiopsier, så som blod eller urin.

I denna avhandling så har vi använt oss utav affinitetsproteomik samt masspektrometri för att identifiera och validera blodbiomarkörer för DMD och BMD. Det övergripande målet har varit att identifiera biomarkörer med förmågan att särskilja patienter med olika nivåer av både dystrofinuttruck samt progression, för att senare kunna identifiera biomarkörer för att övervaka effekt av genterapier i DMD. I Artikel I använde vi oss utav en så kallad ”suspension bead array” (SBA)-teknologi för att identifiera biomarkörskandidater för sjukdomsprogression i DMD. Vi identifierade tio proteiner relaterade till progression. Analytisk validering av dessa tio biomarkörskandidater genomfördes i Artikel II med hjälp av två ortogonala, absolutkvantitativa metoder, ”Parallell Reaction Monitoring” masspektrometri (PRM-MS) samt ”sandwich immunoassay”. Detta resulterade i analytisk validering av fem biomarkörer för att följa sjukdomsutveckling i DMD (CA3, MYL3, LDHB, COL1A1 samt FGG).

Även om både DMD och BMD orsakas av mutationer i samma gen, så finns det skillnader i både sjukdomsprogression och symptom mellan de två patientgrupperna. I Artikel III använde vi masspektrometri för att studera skillnader och likheter i blodproteomet mellan DMD och BMD över tid, vilket visade på diskrepanser i vilka biomarkörskandidater som är lämpliga för att följa sjukdomsprogression i dessa två sjukdomar.

I Artikel IV letade vi efter blodbiomarkörer med förmågan att reflektera förändrat dystrofinuttryck i kliniska studier för genterapier. Vi identifierade tio proteiner som korrelerade med dystrofin- samt mikrodystrofinuttryck i plasma från en DMD-musmodell behandlad med en mikrodystrofinterapi. Av dessa tio proteiner konstaterade vi att myosin lätt kedja 3 (MYL3) minskar snabbare över tid i serum från dystrofinopati-patienter med lågts eller inget dystrofinuttryck än i patienter med högre uttryck. Två ytterligare proteiner, titin (TTN) och serum-läckage av dystrofin, var associerade med dystrofinuttryck i muskler.  

Endast en tidigare publikation påvisar att dystrofin kan vara en blodbiomarkör för DMD. Då många terapier för DMD i kliniska studier har som syfte att öka dystrofinuttrycket så skulle möjligheten att detektera läckage av dystrofin i blod kunna bidra med värdefull information om terapeutisk effekt. I Artikel V designade vi därför en ”proof of principle”-studie för att utforska om dystrofin kan detekteras i blod och i så fall om det kan utgöra en rimlig biomarkörskandidat.

Sammanfattningsvis utforskar denna avhandling biomarkörer för att följa sjukdomsförlopp och utvärdera genterapier i DMD och BMD. Från våra resultat föreslår vi tre biomarkörskandidater: MYL3, TTN samt dystrofin i serum.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm, Sweden: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2023. , p. 87
Series
TRITA-CBH-FOU ; 2023:49
Keywords [en]
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Becker muscular dystrophy, proteomics, affinity-proteomics, biomarkers, DIA-MS, SRM-MS, immunoassay, suspension bead arrays
Keywords [sv]
Duchenne muskeldystrofi, Becker muskeldystrofi, proteomik, affinitetsproteomik, biomarkörer, DIA-MS, SRM-MS, immunoassay, suspension bead array
National Category
Medical Biotechnology (with a focus on Cell Biology (including Stem Cell Biology), Molecular Biology, Microbiology, Biochemistry or Biopharmacy) Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
Research subject
Biotechnology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-338366ISBN: 978-91-8040-736-6 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-338366DiVA, id: diva2:1806561
Public defence
2023-11-24, F3, Lindstedtsvägen 26 & 28, KTH Campus, via Zoom: https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/64513617825, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 2023-10-23

Available from: 2023-10-23 Created: 2023-10-23 Last updated: 2025-02-05Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Longitudinal serum biomarker screening identifies malate dehydrogenase 2 as candidate prognostic biomarker for Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Longitudinal serum biomarker screening identifies malate dehydrogenase 2 as candidate prognostic biomarker for Duchenne muscular dystrophy
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2020 (English)In: Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle, ISSN 2190-5991, E-ISSN 2190-6009, Vol. 11, no 2, p. 505-517Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Abstract

Background

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a fatal disease for which no cure is available. Clinical trials have shown to be largely underpowered due to inter‐individual variability and noisy outcome measures. The availability of biomarkers able to anticipate clinical benefit is highly needed to improve clinical trial design and facilitate drug development.

Methods

In this study, we aimed to appraise the value of protein biomarkers to predict prognosis and monitor disease progression or treatment outcome in patients affected by DMD. We collected clinical data and 303 blood samples from 157 DMD patients in three clinical centres; 78 patients contributed multiple blood samples over time, with a median follow‐up time of 2 years. We employed linear mixed models to identify biomarkers that are associated with disease progression, wheelchair dependency, and treatment with corticosteroids and performed survival analysis to find biomarkers whose levels are associated with time to loss of ambulation.

Results

Our analysis led to the identification of 21 proteins whose levels significantly decrease with age and nine proteins whose levels significantly increase. Seven of these proteins are also differentially expressed in non‐ambulant patients, and three proteins are differentially expressed in patients treated with glucocorticosteroids. Treatment with corticosteroids was found to partly counteract the effect of disease progression on two biomarkers, namely, malate dehydrogenase 2 (MDH2, P = 0.0003) and ankyrin repeat domain 2 (P = 0.0005); however, patients treated with corticosteroids experienced a further reduction on collagen 1 serum levels (P = 0.0003), especially following administration of deflazacort. A time to event analysis allowed to further support the use of MDH2 as a prognostic biomarker as it was associated with an increased risk of wheelchair dependence (P = 0.0003). The obtained data support the prospective evaluation of the identified biomarkers in natural history and clinical trials as exploratory biomarkers.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Wiley, 2020
Keywords
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Protein biomarkers, Prognostic biomarker, Rare diseases, Serum biomarkers
National Category
Medical Biotechnology (with a focus on Cell Biology (including Stem Cell Biology), Molecular Biology, Microbiology, Biochemistry or Biopharmacy)
Research subject
Biotechnology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-272072 (URN)10.1002/jcsm.12517 (DOI)000504540100001 ()31881125 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85077170405 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20200427

Available from: 2020-04-15 Created: 2020-04-15 Last updated: 2023-10-23Bibliographically approved
2. Orthogonal proteomics methods warrant the development of Duchenne muscular dystrophy biomarkers
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Orthogonal proteomics methods warrant the development of Duchenne muscular dystrophy biomarkers
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2023 (English)In: Clinical Proteomics, ISSN 1542-6416, E-ISSN 1559-0275, Vol. 20, no 1, article id 23Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background

Molecular components in blood, such as proteins, are used as biomarkers to detect or predict disease states, guide clinical interventions and aid in the development of therapies. While multiplexing proteomics methods promote discovery of such biomarkers, their translation to clinical use is difficult due to the lack of substantial evidence regarding their reliability as quantifiable indicators of disease state or outcome. To overcome this challenge, a novel orthogonal strategy was developed and used to assess the reliability of biomarkers and analytically corroborate already identified serum biomarkers for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). DMD is a monogenic incurable disease characterized by progressive muscle damage that currently lacks reliable and specific disease monitoring tools.

Methods

Two technological platforms are used to detect and quantify the biomarkers in 72 longitudinally collected serum samples from DMD patients at 3 to 5 timepoints. Quantification of the biomarkers is achieved by detection of the same biomarker fragment either through interaction with validated antibodies in immuno-assays or through quantification of peptides by Parallel Reaction Monitoring Mass Spectrometry assay (PRM-MS).

Results

Five, out of ten biomarkers previously identified by affinity-based proteomics methods, were confirmed to be associated with DMD using the mass spectrometry-based method. Two biomarkers, carbonic anhydrase III and lactate dehydrogenase B, were quantified with two independent methods, sandwich immunoassays and PRM-MS, with Pearson correlations of 0.92 and 0.946 respectively. The median concentrations of CA3 and LDHB in DMD patients was elevated in comparison to those in healthy individuals by 35- and 3-fold, respectively. Levels of CA3 vary between 10.26 and 0.36 ng/ml in DMD patients whereas those of LDHB vary between 15.1 and 0.8 ng/ml.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate that orthogonal assays can be used to assess the analytical reliability of biomarker quantification assays, providing a means to facilitate the translation of biomarkers to clinical practice. This strategy also warrants the development of the most relevant biomarkers, markers that can be reliably quantified with different proteomics methods.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2023
Keywords
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Serum biomarkers, Biomarker quantification, Sandwich immunoassay, Mass spectrometry, Parallel reaction monitoring
National Category
Medical Biotechnology (with a focus on Cell Biology (including Stem Cell Biology), Molecular Biology, Microbiology, Biochemistry or Biopharmacy)
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-330521 (URN)10.1186/s12014-023-09412-1 (DOI)001004960700001 ()37308827 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85161893058 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20231023

Available from: 2023-06-30 Created: 2023-06-30 Last updated: 2023-12-07Bibliographically approved
3. Monitoring Biomarker Study in Becker Muscular Dystrophy using Data Independent Acquisition LC-MS/MS
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Monitoring Biomarker Study in Becker Muscular Dystrophy using Data Independent Acquisition LC-MS/MS
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(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is a rare and heterogenous form of dystrophinopathy caused by reduced expression of altered dystrophin protein. Gene therapies and exon-skipping therapies for the more severe form of dystrophinopathy, Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), assumes that by promoting partial dystrophin expression in DMD patients, their disease progression could be reduced. Several studies have identified potential progression biomarkers for DMD and hypothesised in their usefulness in monitoring pharmacodynamic response in gene-therapy clinical trials. However, knowledge of progression changes of blood proteome in BMD is lacking. In this study, we aimed at exploring differences in proteomic changes between DMD and BMD in a prospective longitudinal 4-year study as well as explore what proteins relate to functional performance in BMD patients. Serum from 48 BMD patients and 19 DMD patients were analysed using Data Independent Acquisition Tandem Mass Spectrometry (DIA-MS). Linear mixed effects models identified 17 proteins with altered longitudinal signatures between DMD and BMD, among these CKM, PKM and ALDOA. Furthermore, bikunin (product of AMBP gene), C3 and IGHG2 were found related to functional performance in BMD patients. 

Keywords
Becker muscular dystrophy, progression biomarkers, DIA, SRM, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, proteome
National Category
Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
Research subject
Biotechnology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-338307 (URN)
Note

QC 20231023

Available from: 2023-10-19 Created: 2023-10-19 Last updated: 2025-02-07Bibliographically approved
4. Identification of Gene-Therapy Responsive Blood Biomarkers for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Identification of Gene-Therapy Responsive Blood Biomarkers for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
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(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Introduction

Assessing muscle dystrophin expression systemically is important for understanding the effect of dystrophin-restoring therapies in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Many potential blood biomarkers have been identified in DMD patients which are either more or less abundant in blood samples compared to healthy individuals and that have been shown to change with disease progression or respond to pharmacological treatment. In this study, it was suggested that a panel of such blood biomarker candidates could be used to monitor dystrophin rescue in microdystrophin therapies.  

Methods

Plasma samples from mdx mice treated with the microdystrophin therapy SGT-001 were analysed with an antibody suspension bead array consisting of 87 antibodies targeting 83 proteins previously identified as biomarker candidates for DMD. Each sample was assayed at two different plasma dilutions to cover a broader concentration range. Median fluorescent intensities (MFI) for each antibody were correlated to dystrophin expression in muscle tissue, as measured by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. 13 targets were selected and validated in a DMD and Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) longitudinal natural history cohort using a suspension bead array.  

Results

10 proteins were found significantly elevated in untreated mdx mice compared to C57 wild-type mice and 10 were found to correlate with dystrophin expression (Spearman’s correlation, FDR < 0.05) upon gene transfer. Abundance of TTN, ADSSL1, LONP1, OTUD5, MYL3 as well as DMD protein were associated with dystrophin expression in BMD patients. Of these, MYL3 and ADSSL1 had different abundance in DMD compared to healthy individuals, and MYL3 also displayed different age trajectories between DMD and BMD patients.  

Discussion

The ten proteins identified in mouse plasma are related to muscle contraction (ADSSL1, ASAH1, CA3, MYL3, TTN), microtubule formation (TPI1), and protein degradation (PSMA2, OTUD4, LONP1). Of these, MYL3 and ADSSL1 showed the most promise as a dystrophin monitoring biomarker in patient samples.

Keywords
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Becker muscular dystrophy, biomarkers, antibodies, suspension bead array, plasma proteomics, rare disorders
National Category
Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Medical Biotechnology (with a focus on Cell Biology (including Stem Cell Biology), Molecular Biology, Microbiology, Biochemistry or Biopharmacy)
Research subject
Biotechnology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-338312 (URN)
Note

QC 20231023

Available from: 2023-10-19 Created: 2023-10-19 Last updated: 2025-02-05Bibliographically approved
5. A Proof of Principle Proteomic Study Detects Dystrophin in Human Plasma: Implications in DMD Diagnosis and Clinical Monitoring
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A Proof of Principle Proteomic Study Detects Dystrophin in Human Plasma: Implications in DMD Diagnosis and Clinical Monitoring
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2023 (English)In: International Journal of Molecular Sciences, ISSN 1661-6596, E-ISSN 1422-0067, Vol. 24, no 6, article id 5215Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a rare neuromuscular disease caused by pathogenic variations in the DMD gene. There is a need for robust DMD biomarkers for diagnostic screening and to aid therapy monitoring. Creatine kinase, to date, is the only routinely used blood biomarker for DMD, although it lacks specificity and does not correlate with disease severity. To fill this critical gap, we present here novel data about dystrophin protein fragments detected in human plasma by a suspension bead immunoassay using two validated anti-dystrophin-specific antibodies. Using both antibodies, a reduction of the dystrophin signal is detected in a small cohort of plasma samples from DMD patients when compared to healthy controls, female carriers, and other neuromuscular diseases. We also demonstrate the detection of dystrophin protein by an antibody-independent method using targeted liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. This last assay detects three different dystrophin peptides in all healthy individuals analysed and supports our finding that dystrophin protein is detectable in plasma. The results of our proof-of-concept study encourage further studies in larger sample cohorts to investigate the value of dystrophin protein as a low invasive blood biomarker for diagnostic screening and clinical monitoring of DMD.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
MDPI AG, 2023
Keywords
DMD, dystrophin protein, plasma assay, immunoassay, LC-MS, MS
National Category
Biochemistry Molecular Biology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-326053 (URN)10.3390/ijms24065215 (DOI)000955565700001 ()36982290 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85151465984 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20230425

Available from: 2023-04-25 Created: 2023-04-25 Last updated: 2025-02-20Bibliographically approved

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