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Advancing Exoskeleton Use Post Stroke: Developing and Optimizing a Soft Biplanar Ankle Exoskeleton
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics. (KTH MoveAbility)
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Stroke is a leading cause of long-term disability worldwide. Dropfoot gait, or inability to adequately lift, advance, and land on the foot on the more impaired side, is one of the most common gait impairments following a stroke, and often results in reduced mobility and increased fall risk, severely impacting independence and quality of life. Wearable robotics and exoskeletons have been widely explored for their potential in physical rehabilitation and mobility assistance for individuals with motor disorders. However, despite their promise, few existing systems have demonstrated convincing evidence for use. The specific exoskeleton performance challenges in assisting dropfoot gait that are addressed in this compilation thesis are 1) to simultaneously control both sagittal plane ankle dorsiflexion and frontal plane ankle inversion/eversion motions, and 2) to identify control strategies that are individualized based on gait impairments and subjective preferences. 

Specifically, the aims of the thesis were to design an ankle exoskeleton that is capable of providing biplanar assistance and meets both biomechanical and feasibility requirements, to develop a customized control framework that optimizes multiple performance metrics, and to identify subject-specific assistive parameters that improve gait metrics while aligning with users' subjective assessments as well.

The first two studies focus on the development and feasibility of a soft ankle exoskeleton designed to provide  assistance in both ankle dorsiflexion and eversion, via  cable-driven mechanisms and compliant materials. Initial testing confirmed the exoskeleton's ability to effectively guide ankle joint motion in both planes with minimal resistance. In the second study, the device's feasibility was evaluated in a pilot group of persons with dropfoot gait following a stroke. Improvements in key gait parameters, along with positive user assessment on the device's comfort, usability, and perceived effectiveness, encourage further application of the device in persons in a chronic post-stroke phase.

The third and fourth studies focus on developing personalized exoskeleton control strategies, specifically a multi-objective human-in-the-loop optimization framework that evaluates individual responses to various assistive profiles, then identifies assistive profiles tailored to each individual's gait impairments. The framework was constructed to simultaneously optimize two objectives that describe gait quality. This approach yielded not just one, but a group of good solutions that improve both gait metrics to varying degrees, among which solutions can be selected based on context and preference. The framework was developed and tested on a group of non-disabled subjects with a simulated dropfoot impairment in the third study and on a pilot group of persons with dropfoot following a stroke in the fourth study. In the fourth study, the personalization framework was further advanced by incorporating user preferences, thereby incorporating both objective gait quality metrics and subjective preference in identifying optimal exoskeleton assistance.

This thesis advances the application of exoskeletons for individuals post-stroke by addressing both hardware design and personalized control strategies. The findings highlight the potential of the developed ankle exoskeleton to enhance mobility in this population and underscore the importance of individualized assistance to meet diverse user needs. Together, the exoskeleton design and individualized control framework offer a valuable foundation for future research and practical implementation of assistive technologies.

Abstract [sv]

Stroke är en ledande orsak till långvarig funktionsnedsättning globalt. Droppfot vid gång, eller nedsatt förmåga att lyfta, flytta fram och placera den påverkade foten på ett adekvat sätt är vanligt efter stroke. Droppfot vid gång är ofta förknippad med nedsatt förflyttningsförmåga och ökad fallrisk, samt minskad självständighet och livskvalitet. Potentialen hos bärbar robotik och exoskelett inom rehabilitering och assistans för personer med motoriska funktionsnedsättningar har undersökts brett. Få befintliga system har dock visat övertygande bevis för sin praktiska användning. Denna avhandling fokuserar på två specifika utmaningar i utformningen av ett exoskelettet för assistans vid droppfot under gång: 1) att kontrollera fotens position i både sagittala och frontala plan samtidigt, och 2) att individualisera exoskelettets  assistans för att förbättra både objektiva mått och subjektiv upplevelse.

Syften med avhandlingen är således att utveckla ett exoskelett som kan ge biplanär assistans runt fotleden som uppfyller både biomekaniska och genomförbarhetskrav, att utveckla ett skräddarsytt kontrollramverk som optimerar flera prestationsmått, och att identifiera individuellt anpassad assistans som förbättrar gång och uppfyller subjektiva kriterier.

De två första studierna fokuserar på utvecklingen och genomförbarhet av ett mjukt fotledsexoskelett utformat för att ge assistans vid både dorsalflektion och eversion, via kabeldriven mekanik och följsamma material. Experiment i den första studien bekräftar exoskelettets förmåga att kontrollera fotledsrörelser i båda planen med minimalt motstånd. I den andra studien utvärderades genomförbarheten av exoskelettet i en pilotgrupp av personer med droppfot vid gång i kronisk fas efter stroke. Vi fann förbättringar av viktiga gångparametrar, tillsammans med en positiv användarbedömning av komfort, användbarhet och upplevd effektivitet, vilket ytterligare uppmuntrar tillämpningen för personer i en kronisk fas efter stroke.

Den tredje och fjärde studien fokuserar på att utveckla personliga strategier för exoskelettkontroll, specifikt en multi-objektiv human-in-the-loop optimeringsramverk som utvärderar individuella svar på olika assistansprofiler, och sedan identifierar assistansprofiler skräddarsydda för varje individs gångavvikelse. Ramverket konstruerades för att samtidigt optimera två aspekter av gångkvalitet. Detta tillvägagångssätt gav inte bara en, utan en grupp av bra lösningar vilka förbättrar båda gångparametrarna i varierande grad vilka kan väljas baserat på sammanhang och preferenser. Ramverket utvecklades och testades i den tredje studien på en grupp försökspersoner utan gångavvikelser med en simulerad droppfotsnedsättning och  i den fjärde studien på en pilotgrupp av personer med droppfot efter stroke. I den fjärde studien utvecklades individualiseringsramverket ytterligare genom att ta hänsyn till användarpreferenser, och därigenom identifiera den optimala assistansen utifrån både objektiva gångkvalitetsmått och subjektiva preferenser.

Denna avhandling främjar tillämpningen av exoskelett för individer efter stroke genom både hårdvarudesign och individualiserade kontrollstrategier. Våra resultat stöder utvecklingen av exoskelett för att förbättra förflyttningsförmågan i denna population och belyser vikten av individualiserad assistans för att möta olika användarbehov. Våra resultat och utvecklingen ger en värdefull grund för framtida forskning och praktisk implementering av assisterande hjälpmedel vid gång. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2025. , p. 77
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2025:16
National Category
Robotics and automation Human Computer Interaction
Research subject
Engineering Mechanics
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-363232ISBN: 978-91-8106-242-7 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-363232DiVA, id: diva2:1957220
Public defence
2025-05-26, F3(Flodis), Lindstedtsvägen 26 & 28, floor 2, Stockholm, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 250508

Available from: 2025-05-08 Created: 2025-05-08 Last updated: 2025-06-30Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Soft ankle exoskeleton to counteract dropfoot and excessive inversion
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Soft ankle exoskeleton to counteract dropfoot and excessive inversion
2024 (English)In: Frontiers in Neurorobotics, ISSN 1662-5218, Vol. 18, article id 1372763Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Introduction Wearable exoskeletons are emerging technologies for providing movement assistance and rehabilitation for people with motor disorders. In this study, we focus on the specific gait pathology dropfoot, which is common after a stroke. Dropfoot makes it difficult to achieve foot clearance during swing and heel contact at early stance and often necessitates compensatory movements. Methods We developed a soft ankle exoskeleton consisting of actuation and transmission systems to assist two degrees of freedom simultaneously: dorsiflexion and eversion, then performed several proof-of-concept experiments on non-disabled persons. The actuation system consists of two motors worn on a waist belt. The transmission system provides assistive force to the medial and lateral sides of the forefoot via Bowden cables. The coupling design enables variable assistance of dorsiflexion and inversion at the same time, and a force-free controller is proposed to compensate for device resistance. We first evaluated the performance of the exoskeleton in three seated movement tests: assisting dorsiflexion and eversion, controlling plantarflexion, and compensating for device resistance, then during walking tests. In all proof-of-concept experiments, dropfoot tendency was simulated by fastening a weight to the shoe over the lateral forefoot. Results In the first two seated tests, errors between the target and the achieved ankle joint angles in two planes were low; errors of <1.5 degrees were achieved in assisting dorsiflexion and/or controlling plantarflexion and of <1.4 degrees in assisting ankle eversion. The force-free controller in test three significantly compensated for the device resistance during ankle joint plantarflexion. In the gait tests, the exoskeleton was able to normalize ankle joint and foot segment kinematics, specifically foot inclination angle and ankle inversion angle at initial contact and ankle angle and clearance height during swing. Discussion Our findings support the feasibility of the new ankle exoskeleton design in assisting two degrees of freedom at the ankle simultaneously and show its potential to assist people with dropfoot and excessive inversion.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Frontiers Media SA, 2024
Keywords
assistive device, biomechanics, gait impairment, gait analysis, soft robotics
National Category
Physiotherapy Mechanical Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-353000 (URN)10.3389/fnbot.2024.1372763 (DOI)001304932800001 ()39234442 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85203189202 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20240912

Available from: 2024-09-12 Created: 2024-09-12 Last updated: 2025-05-08Bibliographically approved
2. Feasibility of A New Soft Ankle Exoskeleton on People with Dropfoot Post-Stroke
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Feasibility of A New Soft Ankle Exoskeleton on People with Dropfoot Post-Stroke
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Dropfoot gait pattern during walking commonly persists after stroke and is often associated with muscle weaknessand pathological muscle activation. Exoskeletons have demonstrated the potential to improve mobility inpeople with neurological conditions. We have developed a novel soft ankle exoskeleton and shown its abilityto correct simulated dropfoot and excessive inversion in non-disabled people. In this study, we evaluate its feasibilityin five persons with chronic stroke and dropfoot gait patterns. 3D gait analysis was performed in threeconditions: walking with only shoes, with the exoskeleton unpowered, and powered. Foot and ankle kinematicsand step length asymmetry were evaluated. The participants also reported satisfaction with QUEST 2.0 anda study-specific questionnaire. Compared with only shoes, the powered exoskeleton partially corrected dropfootby increasing dorsiflexion angle and foot clearance height in swing, facilitated heel contact, neutralized ankleinversion, and increased step length symmetry slightly. The participants expressed satisfaction with the exoskeleton’seffectiveness, though some comfort-related issues were identified. This feasibility study suggests that theexoskeleton prototype can improve dropfoot gait patterns and be accepted by individuals in the chronic stage aftera stroke.

National Category
Robotics and automation Human Computer Interaction
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-363228 (URN)
Note

QC 20250512

Available from: 2025-05-08 Created: 2025-05-08 Last updated: 2025-05-12Bibliographically approved
3. Multi-objective Human-in-the-Loop Optimization of Exoskeleton Assistance for Dropfoot Gait
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Multi-objective Human-in-the-Loop Optimization of Exoskeleton Assistance for Dropfoot Gait
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Wearable robotic exoskeletons are frequently ex-plored for their efficacy in physical rehabilitation and forassistance in daily activities in people with motor disorders, yetrelatively few have convincing evidence for use. The conceptof human-in-the-loop optimization has been used to identifyideal exoskeleton assistive torques based on measured individualperformance metrics, whereas few studies report optimizing sev-eral performance metrics simultaneously. We developed a cable-driven ankle exoskeleton providing sagittal and frontal planeassistance, aimed at persons with dropfoot and excessive inversionafter stroke. In this study, we propose a multi-objective human-in-the-loop optimization that adjusts exoskeleton assistive profilesto improve several gait quality measures, specifically foot segmentkinematics and step length symmetry. Five non-disabled subjectstested the feasibility of the proposed method. An extra weight wasattached to the top of the right shoe to simulate the gait deviationsassociated with dropfoot and excessive inversion. The gait qualitymetrics improved more for each new generation. With optimalassistive solutions, foot segment kinematics improved (10mmhigher foot clearance height and a 7° increase in inclination angle)and step length became more symmetric (asymmetry reducedfrom 9% to 2%), compared to simulated impairment. Within thisset of solutions, each represents a unique balance between thetwo objectives, wherein a solution that prioritized normalizingstep length symmetry could slightly sacrifice normalizing footsegment kinematics, and vice versa. By taking advantage ofthe trade-off relationship between the two objectives, moreflexible individualized and situation-dependent assistance can beobtained. These results demonstrate the method’s usefulness indetermining subject-specific exoskeleton control parameters thatimprove several measures of gait in persons with motor disability.Future applications include refining this protocol for individualswith actual dropfoot and offering personalized assistance torestore their functional mobility.

National Category
Robotics and automation
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-363230 (URN)
Note

QC 20250512

Available from: 2025-05-08 Created: 2025-05-08 Last updated: 2025-05-12Bibliographically approved
4. Customized Ankle Exoskeleton Control to Assist Dropfoot Gait Post-Stroke Based on Objective and Subjective Responses
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Customized Ankle Exoskeleton Control to Assist Dropfoot Gait Post-Stroke Based on Objective and Subjective Responses
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Dropfoot is a common and persistent impairment following stroke, often leading to reduced mobility and increased fall risk. While assistive exoskeletons have shown potential to enhance mobility in individuals with neurological conditions, there is practically no widespread use. Customized assistance may maximize user-specific benefits, but its application in post-stroke populations remains underexplored. In this study, we propose a customized exoskeleton control framework designed to optimize assistance for individuals with dropfoot gait patterns following a stroke. The approach combines objective metrics from multiobjective human-in-the-loop optimization, with goals related to improving foot kinematics and step length symmetry, with subjective assessment of perceived assistance. Five participants with chronic stroke and dropfoot gait patterns donned our previously developed soft ankle exoskeleton. Three generations of optimization were performed, and a Pareto front of optimal assistive profiles was identified that optimized the objective gait metrics to varying degrees. Subjective scores of perceived assistance were also documented during the experiements. The assistance profiles with the most improved gait metrics agreed to some extent aligned with the most highly rated profiles. These findings support a framework to identify subject-specific exoskeleton assistance profiles based on a combination of objective gait metrics and subjective perception in individuals with gait impairments.

National Category
Robotics and automation Human Computer Interaction
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-363231 (URN)
Note

QC 20250512

Available from: 2025-05-08 Created: 2025-05-08 Last updated: 2025-05-12Bibliographically approved

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Zhang, Xiaochen

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