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Rolling resistance and its relation to operating conditions: A literature review
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Vehicle Engineering and Solid Mechanics, Vehicle Dynamics. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Centres, VinnExcellence Center for ECO2 Vehicle design. The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4199-5860
The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-8242-3407
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Centres, VinnExcellence Center for ECO2 Vehicle design. The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7780-7449
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Vehicle Engineering and Solid Mechanics, Vehicle Dynamics. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Centres, VinnExcellence Center for ECO2 Vehicle design.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1426-1936
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2021 (English)In: Proceedings of the Institution of mechanical engineers. Part D, journal of automobile engineering, ISSN 0954-4070, E-ISSN 2041-2991, Vol. 235, no 12, p. 2931-2948Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

For at least 50 years, the interest in understanding and reducing the rolling resistance of pneumatic tyres has been growing. This interest is driven by the need to reduce vehicle fuel consumption and CO2-emissions, for environmental and economic reasons. The amount of rolling resistance generated depends on the vehicle type, tyre properties and operating conditions. The main objective of this literature review is to provide an overview of the most influential operating conditions with respect to rolling resistance, their effects and their connection to different measurement techniques. The examined operating conditions are the inflation pressure, the temperature, the curvature of the test surface, the load, road surface, speed, torque, slip angle and camber angle. In addition, the definition of rolling resistance is investigated, which shows lack of harmony in the literature. There are important areas where little research can be found and where further research would be valuable. Examples of such areas are effects of the torque, slip angle and camber angle on rolling resistance, thorough comparison between flat-surface and drum measurements, effects of temperature difference between laboratory measurements and actual driving on rolling resistance and evaluation of Unrau’s formula for temperature correction of rolling resistance measurements.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
SAGE Publications , 2021. Vol. 235, no 12, p. 2931-2948
Keywords [en]
Tyres, rolling resistance definition, rolling resistance measurement, drum measurement, flat surface measurements, driving conditions, tyre temperature, inflation pressure, slip angle, camber angle
National Category
Vehicle and Aerospace Engineering
Research subject
Vehicle and Maritime Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-307150DOI: 10.1177/09544070211011089ISI: 000682022800001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85104872106OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-307150DiVA, id: diva2:1627439
Funder
Vinnova, 2016-05195
Note

QC 20220302

Available from: 2022-01-13 Created: 2022-01-13 Last updated: 2025-02-14Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. The relationship between rolling resistance and tyre operating conditions, with a focus on tyre temperature
Open this publication in new window or tab >>The relationship between rolling resistance and tyre operating conditions, with a focus on tyre temperature
2022 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from today’s increasing number of cars and trucks, are crucial in counteracting global warming. These efforts include the intent to reduce the effects of the resistive forces acting on the vehicle. Rolling resistance is one of these forces. A reduction in rolling resistance would aid in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, while also reducing the driving costs and increasing the driving range per charge for electric vehicles. This PhD research contributes to these efforts by the development of a rolling resistance measurement method on a flat track test equipment that avoids the curvature effects present in the standardised drum test. Another contribution is the development of a rolling resistance model that can describe the relationship between the tyre deformation and the forces acting on the tyre. The model is parametrised by results from the developed measurement method and is simple enough to be included in complete vehicle dynamicssimulations. In this thesis, the effects of different operational conditions, such as inflation pressure, tyre temperature, speed, load, road surface or tyre angles, are investigated and presented. The results from this investigation were used for the development of the measurement method for flat track test equipment. Tyre temperature is an important operating condition influencing rolling resistance and the proposed measurement method can be used to investigate rolling resistance at different tyre temperatures. The results obtained with the proposedmeasurement method, which are comparable to drum measurements performed under the same operating conditions, are used to parameterise the developed rolling resistance model. The model gives a good fit for the relationship between rolling resistance and tyre deformation. The measurement method and the model build a good platform for deeper investigations of rolling resistance and its connection to tyre temperature.

Abstract [sv]

Arbete för att minska utsläppen av växthusgaser från det ökande antalet bilar och lastbilar är en viktig del i att motverka den globala uppvärmningen. Detta kan göras genom att reducera påverkan från de resistiva krafter som påverkar fordonet, med fokus på rullmotståndet. En minskning av fordonens rullmotstånd skulle medverka till att minska växthusgasutsläppen samt bidra till att reducera körkostnaderna och öka räckvidden per laddning för elbilar.Denna licentiatuppsats bidrar till detta genom att skapa en metod för rullmotståndsmätningar på plant underlag, för att kunna undvikakrökningseffekterna i den standardiserade trummätningen. Ett annatbidrag är en rullmotståndsmodell som beskriver växelverkan mellan däckdeformationer och däckkrafter. Modellen parametriseras med resultat från den framtagna mätmetoden och är tillräckligt enkel för att vara användbar i en komplett fordonsdynamiksimulering. I denna uppsats presenteras påverkan av olika driftsvillkor som däcktryck, däcktemperatur, hastighet, last, underlag och kurvatur. Dessa resultat nyttjades i utvecklandet av nämnda mätmetod för rullmotståndsmätningar på plant underlag. Däcktemperatur är ett viktigt driftsförhållande med stor påverkan på rullmotståndet och den föreslagna mätmetoden kan användas för att mäta rullmotstånd vid olika däcktemperaturer. Denna mätmetod användes sedan för att parametrisera indata till den utvecklade rullmotståndsmodellen. Det visade sig att modelldata avviker från uppmätt data för förhållandet mellan hjullast och däckdeformation på grund av modellgeometrin. Men modellen ger en god överenstämmelse för förhållandet mellan däckdeformation och rullmotstånd. Mätmetoden är, tillsammans med den föreslagna modellen, en bra bas för mer genomgående undersökningar av rullmotstånd och dess korrelation med däcktemperatur.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2022. p. 35
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2022:27
Keywords
Rolling resistance, tyre temperature, brush model, parametrisation, rolling resistance measurement, drum measurements, operating conditions, tyre, flat track measurements, Rullmotstånd, rullmotståndsmätning, däcktemperatur, driftsförhållanden, trummätning, borstmodellen, parametrisering, däck
National Category
Vehicle and Aerospace Engineering
Research subject
Vehicle and Maritime Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-312094 (URN)978-91-8040-266-8 (ISBN)
Presentation
2022-06-01, E3, Osquars backe 14, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Vinnova, 2016-05195
Available from: 2022-05-10 Created: 2022-05-10 Last updated: 2025-02-14Bibliographically approved
2. Rolling resistance at non-steady-state conditions - investigating the effect of tyre temperature
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Rolling resistance at non-steady-state conditions - investigating the effect of tyre temperature
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Road transport accounts for nearly a fifth of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Despite significant reductions, achieved by e.g. the introduction of electric vehicles, more can be done. One way is to reduce the rolling resistance, which is one of the resistive forces acting on a moving vehicle.

The overall goal of this work is to fill part of the knowledge gap regarding tyre rolling resistance to support the development of more energy efficient vehicles. Focus is on the influence of the operating conditions, with emphasis on tyre temperature and non-steady-state measurements. Today, rolling resistance of new tyres is rated to guide consumers to choose an energy-efficient tyre. However, this rating is based on standardised steady-state drum measurements at 25°C which often results in the measured rolling resistance being evaluated at higher operating temperature than during normal driving. To account for the drum’s curvature, Clark’s formula is used to convert the drum measurement to represent the tyre’s rolling resistance on a flat surface.

In this work, a new method for non-steady-state rolling resistance measurements on a flat surface has been developed and used to show that rolling resistance has a large and non-linear dependence on tyre temperature. This influence varied across the tested tyres, which indicates that the rolling resistance rating could be affected by the measurement temperature. It was shown that the influence of the tyre temperature on rolling resistance was more profound on a drum compared to a flat track. Therefore, it would be beneficial to include a temperature dependency in Clark’s formula to increase its accuracy.

Furthermore, a rolling resistance model has been developed to describe the relationship between tyre deformation and rolling resistance. The model is parametrised with measurement data and simple enough to be used in complete vehicle dynamic simulations.

Overall, this work has contributed with an increase of knowledge about rolling resistance and how it is influenced by tyre temperature, through the development and use of a new measurement method. The results can be used to improve range estimations and to develop more energy-efficient vehicles at realistic operating conditions. 

Abstract [sv]

Vägtransporter står för nästan en femtedel av de globala utsläppen av växthusgaser. En stor minskning har åstadkommits genom bl.a. introduktionen av elektriska fordon, men det räcker inte. Ett sätt är att minska rullmotståndet, som är en del av det färdmotstånd som verkar på ett fordon i rörelse. 

Det övergripande målet för den här avhandlingen är att fylla en del av kunskapsluckan om rullmotstånd för att bidra till utvecklingen av mer energieffektiva fordon. Fokus ligger på driftsvillkorens påverkan, framförallt däcktemperatur och icke-steady-state. Idag klassificeras däcks rullmotstånd för att hjälpa konsumenter att välja energieffektiva däck. Klassificeringen baseras dock på en standardiserad trumprovning under steady-state i 25°C, vilket ofta ger betydligt högre däcktemperatur än vid verkliga körförhållanden. För att ta hänsyn till trummans kurvatur används Clarks formel för att omvandla trummätningen till ett motsvarande rullmotstånd på en plan yta.

I detta arbete presenteras en ny metod för rullmotståndsmätningar vid icke-steady-state på plant underlag, vilken har utvecklats och använts för att påvisa att rullmotstånd har ett starkt och olinjärt beroende av däcktemperaturen. Däcktemperaturens inverkan på rullmotståndet varierade mellan de provade däcken, vilket indikerar att rullmotståndsklassificeringen kan påverkas av mättemperaturen. Vidare visades att däcktemperaturens påverkan på rullmotståndet är större på trumma jämfört med plant underlag. Därmed skulle det vara fördelaktigt att inkludera ett temperaturberoende i Clarks formel för att öka dess noggrannhet.

Vidare har en rullmotståndsmodell utvecklats som beskriver sambandet mellan rullmotstånd och däckdeformation. Modellen är parametriserad med mätdata och tillräckligt enkel för att användas i fordonsdynamiska simuleringar av ett komplett fordon.

Sammantaget har detta arbete bidragit med ökad kunskap om rullmotstånd och däcktemperaturens påverkan, genom utvecklande och användning av en ny mätmetod. Resultaten kan användas till att förbättra räckviddsuppskattningar och utveckla mer energieffektiva fordon vid realistiska driftsförhållanden. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2024. p. 63
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2024:31
Keywords
Tyres, rolling resistance, tyre temperature, operating conditions, rolling resistance measurement, drum measurements, non-steady-state, Clark’s formula, flat track measurements, trailer measurements, real driving conditions, brush model, parametrisation, Däck, rullmotstånd, däcktemperatur, driftsförhållanden, rullmotståndsmätning, trummätning, icke steady-state, Clarks formel, flat track-mätning, verkliga körförhållanden, borstmodellen, parametrisering
National Category
Vehicle and Aerospace Engineering
Research subject
Vehicle and Maritime Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-346470 (URN)978-91-8040-953-7 (ISBN)
Public defence
2024-06-10, Kollegiesalen, Brinellv. 6, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/62030398715, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Vinnova, 2016-05195
Available from: 2024-05-16 Created: 2024-05-15 Last updated: 2025-02-14Bibliographically approved

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Kharrazi, SogolJerrelind, JennyStensson Trigell, Annika

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