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Sample-to-answer paper-based nucleic acid amplification tests
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Fibre- and Polymer Technology, Fibre Technology. KTH Royal Institute of Technology.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9656-5521
2022 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAATs) with PCR technology to amplify DNA, are the golden standard for infectious disease diagnostics, but they require benchtop instruments and trained users to be performed. For this reason, we all had to send PCR test to centralized laboratories during the Covid-19 pandemic. A year into the pandemic, home-based antigen paper-based tests became available for Covid, but these were not as sensitive, so PCR tests had to be used still. This development emphasized the need for technologies that enable NAATs with superior sensitivity to be performed at home. There are three technological advanced that could make such tests possible: 1)  Paper based devices, called paper microfluidics, have been developed to enable more advanced steps of testing without laboratory equipment. These paper-based system incorporate advanced functionality and multiple reaction steps. 2) New DNA amplification techniques, called isothermal amplification, have been developed which, contrary to PCR, can be run without a thermocycler, enabling DNA amplification to be carried out even inside a paper.  3) Several methods to detect DNA have been shown using paper.

One step that is still largely unsolved in NAATs is the sample preparation step, hindering the development of fully paper-based NAATs. In sample preparation, nucleic acids are extracted from bacteria or virus, usually using reagents harmful to DNA amplification. These steps are thereofore complicated and require several washing steps and heating, and are therefore difficult to integrate into paper.

In this thesis, we used a simple, cost-effective, and scalable method to incorporate sample preparation in paper, thus taking NAATs towards point of care. We solve this problem by immobilizing enzymes that are used for sample preparation on nitrocellulose paper. The immobilized enzymes remain functional and can be used for biochemical reactions, while they are strongly bound to the paper. This method enables the separation of these enzymes from the sample, protecting downstream sensitive reactions of DNA amplification and eliminates the need for high temperature deactivation or washing steps. Specifically, we show that the enzyme achromopeptidase can do cell lysis from the Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria, a common pathogenic gram-positive bacterium, and use its DNA in further reaction to perform a sample-to-answer paper-based NAAT. These NAATs employed a low temperature amplification step called Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA) and DNA detection with a lateral flow strip.

We further show the enzyme proteinase K, also immobilized on paper, can digest RNase in saliva samples, an enzyme that breaks down RNA leading to false-negative results. This results enabled an easy sample preparation step towards saliva viral DNA self-testing.

Finally, in this work we developed a paper microfluidic system that can carry out an enzyme-linked oligonucleotide assay, which demonstrated much higher sensitivity in detecting amplified DNA than conventional lateral flow assays. In summary, these results provide solutions towards high-performing, affordable and instrument-free paper-based NAATs home-testing.

Abstract [sv]

DNA tester också kallade NAAT tester, utförs idag med PCR-teknik, som först detekterar en specifik DNA och sedan replikerar den för detektion av infektionssjukdomar. PCR tester kräver dock instrument och utbildade personal. Av denna anledning var vi alla tvungna att skicka PCR-test till centraliserade laboratorier under COVID-19-pandemin. Ett år in i pandemin blev antigen pappersbaserade tester tillgängliga för hemtestning, men dessa var fortfarande inte tillräckligt känsliga och PCR-testerna behövde fortfarande användas. Denna utveckling visade behovet av att tillgängliggöra NAAT för hemmabruk. Det har på senare tid gjorts tre tekniska framsteg som för oss närmare sådana tester:_1) Pappersbaserade tester, så kallade pappers mikrofluidik, har utvecklats, för att möjliggöra mer avancerade tester. Dessa pappersbaserade system innehåller avancerad funktionalitet och flera reaktionssteg. 2) Nya DNA-amplifieringstekniker som kallas isotermisk amplifiering har utvecklats. Dessa kan i motsats till PCR köras utan maskiner, under konstant temperatur, och därmed blir DNA-amplifiering möjlig att utföra även inuti ett papper. 3) Flera metoder för att detektera DNA-metoder har visats med papper.

Ett steg som fortfarande inte är helt löst är provberedningssteget för NAAT. I provberedningen extraheras nukleinsyror från bakterier eller virus, vanligtvis genom användning av reagenser som är förstörr DNA-amplifiering. Provbredning är därför komplicerade. Dom kräver flera tvättsteg och uppvärmning och är därför svåra att integrera i papper.

I det här arbetet använde vi en enkel, kostnadseffektiv och skalbar metod för att integrera provberedning i papper. Våra resultat tar oss ett steg närmare DNA självtestning. Vi löser problemet med provbredning genom att immobilisera relevanta enzymer på nitrocellulosapapper. Dessa immobiliserade enzymer förblir funktionella och kan sedan utföra biokemiska reaktioner, samtidigt som de är starkt bundna till papperet. Denna metod möjliggör separation av provbredningssenzymer från, andra känsliga reaktioner såsom DNA-amplifiering. Samtidigt elimineras behovet av högtemperaturdeaktivering eller tvättsteg. Vi visar specifikt att enzymet akromopeptidas kan ta sönder cellväggen för att extrahera DNA hos Staphylococcus-epidermidis bakterien, en vanlig patogen, och vi kan sedan direkt använda bakteriens DNA i ytterligare reaktion för att utföra en prov-till-svar pappersbaserad DNA test. Dessa tester använder lågtemperatur för amplifieringssteget med en teknik som kallas Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA) och vi utför DNA-detektion med en paperbaserad flödesremsa.

Vi visar vidare att enzymet proteinas K också kan immobiliseras på papper för att sedan förstora RNas:er, ett enzym som bryter ner RNA och som finns i humana salivprover. Möjligheten att använda papper för att ta bort RNAs från saliv öppnar vägen mot självtestning av salivvirus-DNA, som influenza virus.

Slutligen, utvecklade vi ett pappersmikrofluidik system som kunde utföra en enzymkopplad oligonukleotid test. Denna test visar mycket högre känslighet för detektering av amplifierat DNA än vad en kommersiell paperbaserad flödesremsa visar. 

Sammanfattningsvis har denna avhandlig visat några olika lösningar som för oss närmare prisvärda och instrumentfria pappersbaserade DNA tester för hemanvändning.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2022. , p. 57
Series
TRITA-CBH-FOU ; 2022:60
National Category
Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology Medical Engineering Biochemistry Molecular Biology
Research subject
Fibre and Polymer Science
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-320961ISBN: 978-91-8040-389-4 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-320961DiVA, id: diva2:1708260
Public defence
2022-11-25, Kollegiesalen, Brinellvägen 8, Stockholm, Stockholm, 14:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 2022-11-03

Available from: 2022-11-03 Created: 2022-11-03 Last updated: 2025-02-20Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Nitrocellulose-bound achromopeptidase for point-of-care nucleic acid tests
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Nitrocellulose-bound achromopeptidase for point-of-care nucleic acid tests
Show others...
2021 (English)In: Scientific Reports, E-ISSN 2045-2322, Vol. 11, no 1, article id 6140Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Enzymes are the cornerstone of modern biotechnology. Achromopeptidase (ACP) is a well-known enzyme that hydrolyzes a number of proteins, notably proteins on the surface of Gram-positive bacteria. It is therefore used for sample preparation in nucleic acid tests. However, ACP inhibits DNA amplification which makes its integration difficult. Heat is commonly used to inactivate ACP, but it can be challenging to integrate heating into point-of-care devices. Here, we use recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) together with ACP, and show that when ACP is immobilized on nitrocellulose paper, it retains its enzymatic function and can easily and rapidly be activated using agitation. The nitrocellulose-bound ACP does, however, not leak into the solution, preventing the need for deactivation through heat or by other means. Nitrocellulose-bound ACP thus opens new possibilities for paper-based Point-of-Care (POC) devices.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2021
National Category
Biological Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-292300 (URN)10.1038/s41598-021-85481-2 (DOI)000630510600002 ()33731748 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85102733962 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20210406

Available from: 2021-04-06 Created: 2021-04-06 Last updated: 2022-11-03Bibliographically approved
2. Paper‐Based Bacterial Lysis Enables Sample‐to‐Answer Home‐based DNATesting
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Paper‐Based Bacterial Lysis Enables Sample‐to‐Answer Home‐based DNATesting
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Biochemistry Molecular Biology Medical Biotechnology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-320956 (URN)
Note

QC 20221103

Available from: 2022-11-03 Created: 2022-11-03 Last updated: 2025-02-20Bibliographically approved
3. Paper‐based RNase digestion towards viral nucleic acid self‐tests
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Paper‐based RNase digestion towards viral nucleic acid self‐tests
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology Medical Materials Medical Biotechnology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-320957 (URN)
Note

QC 20221107

Available from: 2022-11-03 Created: 2022-11-03 Last updated: 2025-02-09Bibliographically approved
4. 3D paper microfluidic devices for enzyme‐linked assays, and itsapplication to DNA analysis
Open this publication in new window or tab >>3D paper microfluidic devices for enzyme‐linked assays, and itsapplication to DNA analysis
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology Biomaterials Science Biochemistry Molecular Biology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-320959 (URN)
Note

QC 20221109

Available from: 2022-11-03 Created: 2022-11-03 Last updated: 2025-02-20Bibliographically approved

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Chondrogiannis, Georgios

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