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Evaluation of musculoskeletal models, scaling methods, and performance criteria for estimating muscle excitations and fiber lengths across walking speeds
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI). (KTH MoveAbility Lab)ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1561-4000
Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics. Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden. (KTH MoveAbility Lab)ORCID iD: 0000-0001-5417-5939
2022 (English)In: Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, E-ISSN 2296-4185, Vol. 10Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Muscle-driven simulations have been widely adopted to study muscle-tendon behavior; several generic musculoskeletal models have been developed, and their biofidelity improved based on available experimental data and computational feasibility. It is, however, not clear which, if any, of these models accurately estimate muscle-tendon dynamics over a range of walking speeds. In addition, the interaction between model selection, performance criteria to solve muscle redundancy, and approaches for scaling muscle-tendon properties remain unclear. This study aims to compare estimated muscle excitations and muscle fiber lengths, qualitatively and quantitatively, from several model combinations to experimental observations. We tested three generic models proposed by Hamner et al., Rajagopal et al., and Lai-Arnold et al. in combination with performance criteria based on minimization of muscle effort to the power of 2, 3, 5, and 10, and four approaches to scale the muscle-tendon unit properties of maximum isometric force, optimal fiber length, and tendon slack length. We collected motion analysis and electromyography data in eight able-bodied subjects walking at seven speeds and compared agreement between estimated/modelled muscle excitations and observed muscle excitations from electromyography and computed normalized fiber lengths to values reported in the literature. We found that best agreement in on/off timing in vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius lateralis, gastrocnemius medialis, and soleus was estimated with minimum squared muscle effort than to higher exponents, regardless of model and scaling approach. Also, minimum squared or cubed muscle effort with only a subset of muscle-tendon unit scaling approaches produced the best time-series agreement and best estimates of the increment of muscle excitation magnitude across walking speeds. There were discrepancies in estimated fiber lengths and muscle excitations among the models, with the largest discrepancy in the Hamner et al. model. The model proposed by Lai-Arnold et al. best estimated muscle excitation estimates overall, but failed to estimate realistic muscle fiber lengths, which were better estimated with the model proposed by Rajagopal et al. No single model combination estimated the most accurate muscle excitations for all muscles; commonly observed disagreements include onset delay, underestimated co-activation, and failure to estimate muscle excitation increments across walking speeds.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Frontiers Media SA , 2022. Vol. 10
National Category
Biomedical Laboratory Science/Technology Applied Mechanics
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-342762DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1002731ISI: 000875600700001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85140438480OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-342762DiVA, id: diva2:1832846
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2018-007501 8200Promobilia foundation, 18200
Note

QC 20240131

Available from: 2024-01-30 Created: 2024-01-30 Last updated: 2024-01-31Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Walking efficiently with smart springs
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Walking efficiently with smart springs
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Numerous assistive exoskeletons have been developed in recent years to assist walking in individuals with and without motor disorders. A standard metric to measure the efficacy of assistance is the change in the metabolic energy cost between unassisted and assisted conditions. Various experimental methods, such as human-in-the-loop optimization, have been developed to find the optimal exoskeleton control to minimize metabolic energy. Such an approach is powerful yet time- and resource-intensive. In this regard, computational methods might complement state-of-the-art experimental approaches. Developing accurate models of the musculoskeletal system and neuromuscular commands could accelerate the development of exoskeletons and improve our understanding of human-exoskeleton interaction. The aims of the thesis were to model and simulate muscle-tendon mechanics and energetics of walking across speeds in unassisted conditions and with the support of ideal exoskeleton assistance with two modes of assistance: motor-based and spring-based actuators. 

The first three studies examined multiple musculoskeletal models, calibration methods of the muscle-tendon architecture, performance criteria for solving the muscle redundancy, and metabolic energy models to accurately estimate muscle excitations, fiber lengths, and metabolic energy cost compared to available experimental data. The musculoskeletal model proposed by Rajagopal et al. with calibrated muscle passive fiber-length curves and personalized Achilles and patellar tendon stiffness provided good agreement with muscle excitations and fiber lengths obtained from electromyographic signal and ultrasound imaging, respectively. Also, among multiple metabolic energy models in the literature, the model proposed by Bhargava et al. best estimated the average metabolic rates of the whole body compared to experimental measurements computed from spiroergometry. With the best estimations of muscle-tendon mechanics and energetics, the relative cost of the stance phase was predicted to increase significantly with walking speeds, and the metabolic cost of ankle plantarflexors was the highest among muscle groups and increased with walking speeds. The fourth study examined the optimal assistance to reduce muscle activations using motor-based and spring-based assistance of ankle plantarflexor, knee extensor, hip flexor, and hip abductor muscle groups. The largest reduction of muscle activation compared to unassisted conditions was obtained with hip flexor assistance with both actuation systems at high walking speeds. The reduction of metabolic rates compared to unassisted conditions was greater with walking speed with motor-based ankle plantarflexor assistance. In contrast, assisting this muscle group with spring-based actuation resulted in lower metabolic cost compared to unassisted conditions as walking speed increased. Interestingly, the decrease in muscle activations did not necessarily imply a reduction of metabolic energy cost compared to unassisted conditions, for instance with spring-based hip flexor and abductor assistance at some walking speeds. Metabolic energy rates during specific periods of the gait cycle were larger than in unassisted conditions due to increased muscle positive work, which is associated with high metabolic cost. 

The computational methods in the thesis might inspire future studies in the field. The software to calibrate muscle-tendon parameters, such as tendon compliance based on electromyography and muscle passive force-length curves based on ultrasound imaging, and to simulate exoskeleton assistance, are available in public repositories and can be adapted to integrate more experimental observations and simulate other motions than walking. Future studies will validate the predicted muscle-tendon mechanics with exoskeleton assistance.

Abstract [sv]

Flera exoskelett har utvecklats under de senaste åren för att hjälpa personer med och utan motoriska funktionsnedsättningar att gå. Ett standardmått för att utvärdera prestation hos ett exoskelett är förändringen i metabola energikostnad mellan oassisterad och assisterad gång. Flera experimentella metoder, t.ex. human-in-the-loop-optimering, har utvecklats för att identifiera den optimala exoskelettassistansen som minimerar den metabola energin. Sådan metoder är mycket kraftfulla men är också mycket tids- och resurskrävande. I detta avseende kan beräkningsmetoder komplettera de experimentella metoderna. Noggranna modeller av rörelsesystemet och dess motoriska kontroll kan påskynda exoskelettutvecklingen och ge viktig information om samspeket mellan en människa och ett exoskelett. Syftet med avhandlingen är att modellera och simulera muskelmekanik och energiförbrukning vid gång i olika hastigheter, både utan assistans och med ett exoskelett med idealisk assistans från motorer och från fjädrar. 

I de tre första studierna undersökte vi flera modellvariationer för att identifiera den kombination vars resultat bäst matchade experimentella fynd.  Specifikt undersökte vi: flera biomekaniska modeller, olika metoder för att kalibrera muskelarkitekturen, flera kriterier för att lösa det underbestämda muskelkraftsystemet, och flera ekvationer som uppskattar metabolisk energi. Vi jämförde våra resultat med uppmätta eller tillgängliga experimentella data, såsom muskelaktivering, muskelfiberlängd och metabolisk energikostnad. Den biomekaniska modellen av Rajagopal et al. med justeringar för passiva muskelkrafter och häl- och patellarsenstelhet uppskattade muskelaktiveringar och muskelfiberlängder som överensstämde med experiment eller befintlig data.  Bland metabolisk energimodeller, resultaten från modellen av Bhargava et al. stämde bäst med experimentella mätningar från spiroergometri. Med den modellkombinationen som bäst uppskattade muskeldynamiken kunde vi mäta att den relativa metabola kostnad för stödfasen ökar med gånghastighet, där vadmusklerna stod för den största energiförbrukningen. I den fjärde studien uppskattade vi optimal assistans vid varje nedre extremitetsled som minimerar muskelaktiveringar, både från simulerade motorer och fjädrar. De största minskningarna av muskelaktivering uppnåddes med höftböjarassistans från antigen en motor eller en fjäder vid höga gånghastigheter. Vadmuskelassistans med motorer minskade metabola kostnader mer när gånghastigheten ökade. Däremot minskade inte metabola kostnader med vadmuskelassistans från fjädrar när gånghastigheten ökade. Det är intressant att påpeka att exoskelett som minskade muskelaktiveringar inte alltid minskade den metabola kostnaden, t.ex. med höftböjare och höftabduktorassistans från fjädrar. I vissa gångfaser var metabola energin till och med högre med assistans än utan, eftersom muskelarbete var högre vid dessa ögonblick.

De beräkningsmetoder som presenterades i avhandlingen kan inspirera och påskynda framtida studier inom området. Källkoden för kalibrering och justering av muskelparametrar samt senor och muskelpassiva egenskaper är fritt tillgänglig online i ett datarepository, liksom källkoden för simulering av exoskelettassistans. Framtida studier med exoskelettprototyper syftar till att validera simuleringarna.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: Kungliga Tekniska högskolan, 2024. p. xii, 58
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2023:67
Keywords
Musculoskeletal modeling and simulation, muscle-tendon biomechanics, muscle parameter calibration, metabolic energy models, gait analysis, exoskeleton assistance, biomechanics, Biomekanisk modellering och simulering, rörelseorganen, biomekanik, muskel, muskelmodell och muskelarkitektur, metabolisk energi och kostnad, gång, gånganalys, exoskelett, hjälpmedel, gångpatologi
National Category
Engineering and Technology
Research subject
Engineering Mechanics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-342790 (URN)978-91-8040-823-3 (ISBN)
Public defence
2024-02-23, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/66088467200, Kollegiesalen, Brinellvägen 6, Stockholm, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2018-00750Promobilia foundation, 18200
Available from: 2024-02-01 Created: 2024-01-31 Last updated: 2024-02-20Bibliographically approved

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