To control steel quality during continuous casting and subsequent heat treatment, an understanding of the evolution laws of mechanical properties during the austenite transition and the underlying mechanisms is of importance. Herein, the peak separation method is used to investigate the expansion behaviors in low-carbon steel. And the elastic properties of the matrix phase are calculated using the exact muffin-tin orbitals (EMTO) method. A continuous evolution model of high-temperature properties in the phase-transition region is established for ab initio data and experimental results. The evolution laws of the tetragonal shear elastic constant C′ and Young's modulus E agree well with that of the high-temperature strength. The critical temperature for ductility to brittleness is 850 °C. The matrix phase exhibits significantly brittleness character and increases slightly with decreasing temperature in single-phase paramagnetic (PM) γ-Fe region. The straightening zone temperature should be controlled above 950 °C to avoid cracks. In the austenite transition region, the drop rate of the magnetic moment reaches 18.90%. The findings suggest that the evolution law of mechanical properties of steels can be predicted from the elastic properties, especially during the austenite transition process, providing a basis for the prediction of material properties using ab initio methods.
The objective of the present work is to get an understanding of the impact of Al2O3 addition on the phase relationships in the CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2-Cr2O3 slags at low oxygen partial pressures (P-O2 = 10(-4) Pa), with a view to control the precipitation of Cr-spinel in the slag. The equilibrium phases in CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2-Cr2O3 slag system in the range on 1673-1873 K have been investigated. The compositions close to the industrial slag systems were chosen. The Cr2O3 content was fixed at 6 wt% and MgO at 8 wt%. Al2O3 contents in the slag were varied in the range of 3-12 wt%. The basicity (CaO/SiO2) of slag was set to 1.6. Gas/slag equilibrium technique was adopted. The samples were heated to 1873 K and soaked at this temperature for 24 h. The samples were then slow cooled to 1673 K and equilibrated for an additional 24 h. The oxygen partial pressure was kept at 10(-4) Pa. A gas mixture of CO/CO2 was used to control the oxygen partial pressure. After the equilibration, the samples were quenched in water. The chromium distribution and phase compositions in the quenched slags were studied using SEM-WDS and XRD techniques. The results were compared with the phase equilibrium calculations obtained from FACTSAGE software and the samples equilibrated in air. The size of spinel crystals increased drastically after slow cooling followed by annealing compared to samples being quenched after soaking at 1873 K. It was also found that low oxygen partial pressure had a strong impact on chromium partition. The amount of spinel phase increases with increased Al2O3 content.
An investigation of the nitrogen pickup of liquid steel from ladle slag after vacuum degassing was made. Nitride capacities, C-N, of a number of ladle slags were determined at controlled nitrogen and oxygen potentials at 1873K. The nitride capacities in the composition range studied were found to be very low. In accordance with the literature, the nitride capacity was found to increase with increasing SiO2 content. Industrial trials were performed. The nitrogen content of the steel was determined before and after vacuum degassing as well as after the waiting period. Three different trends of the variation of nitrogen content in the steel were observed. Both the laboratory study and the industrial trials revealed that the transfer of nitrogen from slag to steel was not the reason for nitrogen pickup in the steel subsequent to vacuum degassing.
The spark-induced modified optical emission spectroscopy (OES) technique developed by Ovako Steel makes it possible to rapidly determine inclusion characteristics in steel samples. In earlier investigations using the modified spark-induced OES technique for steel samples taken from billets, predicted oxygen contents agreed well with results from conventional melt extraction analyses. In this investigation, samples taken during ladle treatment in an ASEA-SKF ladle furnace were analysed using the modified OES technique. When comparing the results with inclusion characteristics determined by conventional analysis, similar trends were found. Plant trials were also carried out where three different top slag compositions were used. The purpose was to evaluate if the modified OES technique can be used to study the effect of changes in the refining operation on inclusion characteristics. Results indicated that the modified OES technique could be used to determine the effect of a changed slag composition on the inclusion characteristics in the steel. Since the modified OES method provides rapid feedback of inclusion characteristics, it has the potential of being used for faster optimisation of ladle refining operations.
Industrial experiments were conducted in ladle treatment at SSAB Oxelosund aiming at a reduction and even elimination of CaF2 as a component in synthetic slag formers. The effects of the presence of CaF2 on sulphur refining, lining wear as well as types and amount of inclusions were examined. The results of the plant trials indicated that the new slag without CaF2 had enough capacity for sulphur removal. On the other hand, the presence of CaF2 as a flux in the slag resulted in profound lining wear. It was also found that both the number and the types of non-metallic inclusions were not affected by the elimination of CaF2 from synthetic slag. The origins of different types of inclusions were also analysed on the basis of the experimental results. The analysis supported the finding that the presence of CaF2 had little effect on inclusions.
A high-temperature thermodynamics model has been coupled with a fundamental mathematical model describing the fluid flow, where boundary conditions were chosen based on data for an industrial AOD converter. Using this model, the effect of both slag phases (a liquid part and a solid part) on the decarburization was studied. More specifically, the separation of chromium oxide to liquid slag as well as the effect of the amount of rigid top slag (solid)on the decarburization was investigated. The liquid slag was considered with respect to the uptake of chromium oxide, while the rigid top slag was only considered with respect to the increase of the metallostatic pressure in the steel melt. The results suggest that separation of chromium oxide to liquid slag results in a decreased decarburization rate. The same conclusion can be drawn with respect to the amount of solid top slag.
A previously reported flow and reaction model for an argon-oxygen decarburization converter was extended to also include a thermodynamic description. An in-depth study of the model results has been conducted to answer how concentrations of elements and species in the converter at different locations change with time. This may contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms of the refining procedure in the argon-oxygen decarburization process. The refining procedure includes several step-wise changes of an injected gas composition to higher and higher inert gas ratio, called step changes. A step change leads to a decreased partial pressure of carbon monoxide and maintains the decarburization at a higher efficiency. The results shows early and late concentration profiles for the first injection step and suggests a way to determine when a step change should be made. Moreover, the step change could be determined by calculating the carbon concentration profiles and deciding when the carbon concentration gradients start to diminish.
As an alternative to some traditional methods to generate a swirling flow in the continuous casting process, the use of a new swirling flow generator, TurboSwirl, was studied. Specifically, a reversed TurboSwirl device was designed as part of a submerged entry nozzle (SEN) for a round billet continuous casting process. Mathematical modelling was used to investigate this new design and a water model experiment was carried out to validate the mathematical model. The predicted velocities by the turbulence models: realizable k-ε model, Reynold stress model (RSM) and detached eddy simulation (DES) were compared to the measured results from an ultrasound velocity profile (UVP) method. The DES model could give the best prediction inside the SEN and had a deviation less than 3.1% compared to the measured results. Moreover, based on the validated mathematical model and the new design of the SEN, the effect of the swirling flow generated by the reverse TurboSwirl on the flow field of the SEN and mold was compared to the design of the electromagnetic swirl flow generator (EMSFG). A very strong swirling flow in the SEN and a stable flow pattern in the mold could be obtained by the reverse TurboSwirl compared to the EMSFG.
As the requirements on material properties increase, there has been a demand on an additional knowledge on the effect of impurities in the ferroalloys on the properties. Thus, the number, morphology, size, and composition of inclusions in four different ferroalloys (FeTi, FeNb, FeSi, and SiMn) were investigated. This was done in three dimensions (3D) by using scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive spectroscopy after electrolytic extraction of the ferroalloy samples. The non-metallic and metallic inclusions were successfully analyzed on the surface of film filter. Thereafter, the particle size distribution was plotted for most of the non-metallic inclusions. The non-metallic inclusions were found to be REM oxides in FeTi, FeSi, and SiMn, Al2O3, Ti-Nb-S-O oxides in FeNb and silicon oxides in SiMn. Moreover, the intermetallic inclusions were found to be a Ti-Fe phase in FeTi, Ca-Si, and Fe-Si-Ti phases in FeSi and a Mn-Si phase in SiMn. In addition, the almost pure single metallic phases were found to be Ti in FeTi, Nb in FeNb, and Si in FeSi. As the requirements on material properties increase, the effect of impurities in ferroalloys on the steelmaking process is increasingly becoming more important. The characteristic of inclusions (morphology, number, size, and composition) in ferroalloys investigated in three-dimensional after electrolytic extraction is a good method for studying the evolution of inclusions during steelmaking.
IronArc is a newly developed technology for pig iron production with the aim to reduce the CO2 emission and energy consumption, compared to a conventional blast furnace route. In order to understand the fluid flow and stirring in the IronArc reactor, water modeling experiments are performed. Specifically, a down scaled acrylic plastic model of the IronArc pilot plant reactor is used to investigate the mixing phenomena and gas penetration depth in the liquid bath. The mixing time is determined by measuring the conductivity in the bath, after a sodium chloride solution is added. Moreover, the penetration depth is determined by analyzing the pictures obtained during the experimental process by using both a video camera and a high speed camera. The results show that the bath movements are strong and that a circular movement of the surface is present. The mixing in the model for the flow rate of 282 NLmin(-1) is fast. Specifically, the average mixing times are 7.6 and 10.2s for a 95% and a 99% homogenization degree, respectively. This is 15% and 18% (per degree of homogenization) faster compared to the case when using 3 gas inlets and the same flow rate.
Machine learning (ML) is a promising modeling framework that has previously been used in the context of optimizing steel processes. However, many of the more advanced ML models, capable of providing more accurate predictions to complex problems, are often impossible to interpret. This makes the domain experts in the steel industry, to a large extent, hesitant to adopt these models. The valuable increase in model accuracy is diminished by the lack of model interpretability. Herein, Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) is applied to an advanced ML model, predicting the electrical energy (EE) consumption of an electric arc furnace (EAF). The insights from SHAP reveal the contributions from each input variable on the EE for every single heat in the prediction domain. These contributions are then evaluated based on process metallurgical experience.
The influence of nitrogen on the mechanical properties of two high Ni containing advanced austenitic stainless steels with low stacking fault energies is investigated. The results show that increase of nitrogen content greatly increases both strength and elongation of the steel at the same time. At the cryogenic temperature, the steels show a twin induced plasticity behavior. Ab initio calculations indicate that the increase of nitrogen slightly increases the stacking fault energy and consequently the critical shear stress for twin initiation in the steel. However, addition of nitrogen significantly increases the flow stress. This leads to a smaller critical strain for twin initiation and promotes deformation twinning in the high nitrogen steel. This is confirmed by the microstructure investigation. Deformation in steels is a competitive process between slip and twinning. Dislocation slip is dominant at low strain range, but formation of stacking fault and twinning become important in the later stages of deformation. At cryogenic temperature, it is mainly deformation twinning. The influence of nitrogen addition on magnetic property and its effect on deformation twinning are also discussed. The present study increases the understanding for the development of high-performance and low-cost advanced austenitic stainless steels.
Metallurgical converters such as the argon–oxygen decarburization (AOD) converter generally utilize gas blowing for the mixing and refinement of liquid steel. Due to the harsh environment of the complex and opaque system, it is common practice to study the stirring of the process through physical and numerical models. Effective mixing in the bath has an important role in refinement such as decarburization and has been vividly studied before. However, high-temperature chemical reactions that also play a major role are sparsely investigated. With the help of modeling, a computational fluid dynamics model coupled with chemical reactions is developed, allowing the study of both dynamic fluid transport and chemical reactions. Herein, the chemical reactions for a single gas bubble in the AOD are investigated. The study shows that a 60 mm oxygen gas bubble rapidly reacts with the melt and is saturated with carbon in 0.2–0.25 s at low-pressure levels. The saturation time is affected by the pressure and the composition of the injected gas bubble. The impact of ferrostatic pressure on the reactions is more significant at larger depth differences.
Small-scale physical models are commonly used to investigate gas-stirred processes in steelmaking practice. The argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) converter is among various processes widely used in the metallurgy field and utilizes side blowing of oxygen and inert gas for mixing in the bath. Herein, the effect of the converter inclination on mixing time and jet-penetration length with a side-blown physical model is investigated. Scaling with the modified Froude number is applied on data from a real industrial AOD converter to achieve a system with reasonable gas flow rates. During the experiments, water is used to simulate liquid steel and air is blown through side-mounted nozzles for stirring. A NaCl tracer is added and subsequent conductivity measurements are used to measure mixing time. Overall, the penetration length is shown to be independent of inclination angle. The mixing time is found to be influenced by the change of bath height to diameter ratio, change of geometry in the bath volume, gas flow rate, and the intensified wave motion at the interface caused by the inclination of the vessel. The mixing time increase with 14% when 14° angle is applied.
The hydrodynamic modeling method that widely used to simulate the fluid flow was reconsidered and discussed in this paper. The effects of injected salt tracer amount, concentration and kind on the fluid flow behavior in a hydrodynamic model tundish were investigated. The results were compared with the mathematical modeling calculation results, that the tracer density effect was eliminated. The residence time distribution (RTD) curve of tracer introduced deviated to the left side of the calculated curve, besides the deviation was increased as dimensionless tracer amount (the ratio of tracer amount to hydrodynamic model tundish volume) increased from 0.202 × 10−3 to 1.008 × 10−3. The results of tracer concentration study were similar, namely the deviation was increased with concentration increased; on the other hand, the deformation of a “stair-shape” RTD curve occurred when tracer concentration was much lower (at dimensionless tracer amount of 0.168 × 10−3 with converting to saturated solution). Besides, the effect of tracer kind on the accuracy of hydrodynamic modeling was also studied; the measurements of KCl solution with lower density than that of NaCl solution exhibited more of accuracy. Finally, the optimized tracer in hydrodynamic model tundish of present work is saturated KCl solution with dimensionless tracer amount of 0.202 × 10−3.
The Mo yield when using three different alloying mixtures (MoO3 +C; MoO3 +C + FeOx; and MoO3+ C + CaO) was tested both in laboratory experiments (16 g and 0.5 kg scale) and industrial trials (3 ton scale). The alloying is based on in-situ formation of compounds of Mo in the mixtures from molybdenite concentrate with industrial grade Fe 2O3. Thermogravimetry (TGA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed to identify the reduction steps and final products of the alloying mixtures. At least two steps of mass change were discovered during the reduction of all tested mixtures by carbon. The Mo yield for MoO3 + C mixture is 93% which was confirmed by both laboratory and industrial experiments. The Mo yield for MoO3 + C + CaO mixture is around 92% during 16 g scale laboratory and 3 ton scale industrial tests. The best results were obtained in the case of the mixture which contained FeOx, MoO3 and C, resulting in the Mo yield up to 98% at all the experiment scale levels. It was found that the combination of both lower evaporation and fast reduction by carbon of the mixture along with further dissolution in steel are necessary to provide high Mo yield during steel alloying. The calculated mass balance of 3 ton trial heats showed that only a small part of initial Mo amount (8-13 ppm) has gone into slag. Copyright
The commercial software used for predicting fatigue strength for load-carrying spot welds in sheet structures, like car bodies, is mainly developed for two-sheet joints. The purpose of this work was to study the fatigue properties of three-sheet spot welded joints with a dimensioning method used in the automotive industry and to compare such computational results to those obtained from a more accurate method and to experimental data. Eleven three-sheet, single spot welded specimens were studied using a structural stress approach, followed by shell element simulations, similar to those used in commercial software. These results were compared to calculations based on fine meshed solid element models. Fracture mechanics was used to evaluate the loading conditions at the spot welds. Comparison between the results from the different methods and experimental results for three shear loaded specimens, consisting of triple sheets, found in literature showed good correlation. The shell element method in shear loaded cases gives stress intensities within +35% to -5% of the solid element method results. In peel loaded cases the results differ up to -60%, an under-estimation that leads to an increase of estimated fatigue life up to 65 times.
Industrial trials and laboratory study are carried out to investigate the effect of aging on the ability of CaC2 in hot metal desulfurization. The industrial trials indicate that the time of storage of calcium carbide within the limit of industrial practice has no appreciable effect on its ability of desulfurization. In the laboratory, samples of CaC2 are prepared by exposing them in air for different times to promote formation of a Ca(OH)(2) outer layer. The thickness of Ca(OH)(2) increases with exposing time. Thereafter, the aged CaC2 samples are employed for desulfurization at 1673 and 1773 K for 8 min. For all the samples after desulfurization, layers of graphite and CaO are found between the remaining CaC2 particles and the outer CaS layer. The desulfurization using CaC2 is found to proceed by the diffusion of calcium vapor through the product layers and then its reaction with dissolved sulfur in the hot metal at the surface. No appreciable difference in the thickness of the CaS layer is found with the samples exposed to air for different times. This finding explains well the industrial results.
In the present study, the sulfide capacities of the slags in the ternary Al2O3-CaO-SiO2 system at 1873K, and in the quaternary system Al2O3-CaO-MgO-SiO2 at 1823 and 1873K are experimentally measured using copper-slag equilibrium at controlled oxygen partial pressure. The experimental data, which has been unavailable, are needed for the improvement of a sulfide capacity model. An assessment of the available data for sulfide capacities in the Al2O3-CaO-MgO-SiO2 system and its sub lower-order systems are made. Based on this assessment and the present experimental results, the model parameters of the existing sulfide capacity model are re-optimized. The sulfide capacity model can be successfully used in the prediction of the sulfide capacities of multicomponent slags with satisfactory accuracy.
Nowadays, an effective application of energy required for stainless steel production in the electric arc furnace (EAF) by a slag foaming practice and recycling of waste products play two of the most significant roles for a sustainable steel production. In this study, briquettes were used to obtain a combined slag foaming and waste product reduction in the EAF process. Briquettes with different densities produced partly from waste products were tested in an industrial scale to study slag foaming in the EAF process during stainless steel production. The slag foaming tendency was determined based on visual estimations of slag foaming, evaluations of the slag density before and after addition of different briquettes, and by calculating a foaming index. The influence of the main parameters of briquettes (composition, density) and the furnace slag (composition, basicity, and, etc.) on slag foaming was studied. It was found that both heavy and light briquettes can be used for slag foaming. The heavy briquettes, with FeCr, produce about half the amount of gas compared to the light briquettes, without FeCr. The main part of the gas, >80%, was generated during the first 2-3min, Moreover, the highest slag foaming rate was obtained for slags with a basicity in the range of 1.31-1.49.
The modern sustainable stainless steel making industry is characterized by different factors such as an efficient utilization of energy in the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) by a slag foaming practice and an utilization of waste products from its own production facilities. In this study, the foaming briquettes applied for a combined slag foaming and waste product reduction in the EAF are characterized. The recipes of the briquettes were made based on a literature review and previous experience. Afterwards, the composition and density of briquettes were estimated and compared to calculated data. Moreover, weight reduction experiments were made on a laboratory scale at temperatures up to 1500-°C in an argon atmosphere in order to characterize the products (metal, slag, and gas). Based on these results, the calculations were compared with experimental data. The following main results were found: (i) the density of briquettes can be successfully verified, (ii) briquettes have different mechanical properties depending on the materials used for production of briquettes, and (iii) the briquettes yield in different amounts of metal and gas. Moreover, it was found that light briquettes (without FeCr) produced almost double the amount of gas in comparison with heavy briquettes (containing FeCr); valuable metals can be recovered from briquettes, and recipes of briquettes can be optimized based on the amount of metal droplets in briquettes and the total utilization of carbon. This study is focused on a characterization of briquettes, which are used for slag foaming and waste product reduction in the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) during the stainless steel production. The experimental data is compared with calculations according to the obtained results.
The applicability of rotating rod technique in the study of lime dissolution in slag was investigated. Both computational fluid dynamic (CFD) and cold model experiments showed that the mass transfer due to radial velocity introduced by forced convection was zero if the rod was long. The mass transfer by forced convection was also less important in comparison with natural convection and diffusion when the rod was half length of the height of the bath. This finding was in accordance with the criteria put forward by the original work that the method could only be applicable when a thin disk (instead of rod) with big diameter and big liquid bath were used. To study the lime dissolution by forced convection a new experimental technique was developed. A cube was placed in the slag that was eccentrically stirred. The whole system, viz. the sample along with the slag could be quenched. The new technique could study the effect of forced convection on the dissolution. The microscopic study on the quenched slag-lime samples could reveal the dissolution mechanism successfully.
The present work is aimed at a mechanism study of blocking of ladle well by filler sand. Laboratory experiments are carried out using two different chromite-based filler sands. The interaction between the liquid steel and the sand is also studied by using steels containing different contents of Mn and Al. The reaction between the silica phase and the chromite phase is found to be the main mechanism for the sintering of sand. The reaction results in a liquid oxide phase, which becomes the binding phase between the solid oxide grains. The amount of silica phase and its grain size are found to have great impact on the formation of the liquid oxide phase. Faster formation of the liquid oxide phase leads to more serious sintering of the sand. It is found that liquid steel can hardly infiltrate into sand. On the other hand, the presence of steel considerably increases the amount of liquid phase and enhances the sintering of the sand.
In the present work the effects of temperature and holding time on the sintering of ladle filler sand are studied. Laboratory experiments are carried out using pellets made of chromite based filler sand and two steel grades containing different contents of Mn and Al. It is found that the liquid steel plays a major role in the sintering behavior. The results also show that the amount of liquid phase in the sintered sand pellets increases with the increase of temperature and holding time. The Al2O3 content increases substantially in the chromite phase (spinel), especially in the region close to the liquid phase, when the temperature is high enough or when the holding time is long enough. Higher content of dissolved Al would accelerate the formation of the alumina-rich chromite.
The characteristics of nonmetallic inclusions (NMIs) in low-alloyed steel samples taken during ladle treatment before and after Ca treatment are evaluated using the pulse distribution analysis optical emission spectroscopy (PDA/OES) method, INCA-Feature investigations of inclusions on a polished surface of steel samples, and 3D investigations of NMIs after electrolytic extraction (EE) of steel samples. The investigation results of NMIs using the different methods were compared. The PDA/OES results show a clear tendency of a change in the average composition and quantity of NMIs during ladle treatment, which correlates well with the results obtained from the other two methods. Overall, it is found that the application of the PDA/OES method is appropriate to enable a fast online evaluation of inclusion compositions and their behaviors during steelmaking. This, in turn, provides the means for establishing an online control and correction of technological operations of the ladle treatment to implement necessary modification of NMIs to improve the cleanliness of steels and avoid clogging problems during casting.
To study the penetration depth in the case of a gas jet impinging on the surface of liquid steel, cold model experiments were carried out using a liquid alloy GaInSn, which had similar physical properties as liquid steel. A HCl solution was used to simulate the top slag. The top phase was found to have appreciable effect on the penetration depth. Comparison of the experimental data with the predictions of the existing models indicated that most the model predictions deviated from the experimental results at higher lance heights and gas flow rates. New model parameter was suggested based on the present experimental data. The observation of the formation and movement of metal droplets generated by the gas jet was also made. The velocity of the droplet was found to be at a level only about 1% of the terminal velocity. This low velocity suggested that the turbulent viscosity played important role and the droplets could have long resident time in the slag.
A theoretical investigation used previous experimental works for validation of model predications and for studying the effect of different nozzle designs on the quality of continuously cast steel slabs has been undertaken. This is by optimizing the homogeneity degree of cooling pattern "HDCP'' between a pair of rolls. The idea behind this technique is to maximize the solid shell resistance against thermo-metallurgical and mechanical stresses and therefore minimizes the defects generated in different cooling zones. A 2-D mathematical model of thermal, solidification, solid shell resistance and cooling conditions has been developed. The model determines the temperature distributions, the different phases associated with the solidification and three phase peritectic reaction L + delta -> gamma of Fe-0.12%C steel alloy as well as isotherms. The effect of different cooling patterns for various spray cooling systems on the homogeneity degree and solid shell resistance are examined. In additional to traditional water and air-water (AWM) nozzles, a new design of air-water mist nozzle has been proposed to improve the homogeneity degree of spray cooling system. The results indicate generally that the increasing in the homogeneity degree of cooling conditions is proportional to the increasing in the solid shell resistance and therefore to the improving of slab quality. Model predications of different effects of different nozzle designs on the surface and inner quality levels are compared and discussed in the mold and secondary spray cooling zones.
The macrosegregation formed in dendritic equiaxed structure during early stages of solidification of Al-4.5%Cu alloy has been studied by experimental work and by metallurgical study of cast samples taken from the experimental work. An experimental work was conducted to study the coupled effect of natural convection streams, interdendritic strain and mushy permeability of Al-4.5%Cu aluminum alloy solidified in horizontal rectangular parallelepiped cavity at different superheats. The metallurgical study includes macro-microstructure evaluation, measurements of grain size of equiaxed crystals and macrosegregation analysis. This study shows that the level of surface segregation exhibiting as positive segregation varies with superheat whereas the rest of inner ingot areas show the light fluctuation in segregation values. In addition to experimental work, there is a mathematical study which contains a complete derivation of local solute redistribution equations based on Fleming's approach under different solute diffusion mechanisms in the dendritic solid. This derivation includes also the effects of interdendritic strain and mushy permeability on the local solute redistribution distribution. Owing to the length of the study, it is presented in two parts. The first part describes the experimental work and its results as well as a detail derivation of solute conservation equations. This part also involves comparison and discussion between existing and proposed solute conservation equations. The second part contains the mathematical analyses of a two dimensional mathematical model of fluid flow, heat flow, solidification, interdendritic strain and macrosegregation. Also, this part also contains the numerical simulations by using finite difference technique "FDT" to create convection patterns, heat transfer, interdendritic strain, and macrosegregation distributions. This part also includes comparisons between the available measurements and model predications as well as full discussion of different model simulations. The mechanism of interdendritic strain generation and macrosegregation formation during solidification of dendritic equiaxed structure under different diffusion mechanisms in dendritic solid has also been explained and discussed. Macrosegregation in dendritic equiaxed structure during the early stages of solidification of Al-4.5%Cu alloy has been studied experimentally. The metallurgical study includes macro-microstructure evaluation, measurements of grain size of equiaxed crystals, and macrosegregation analysis. In addition to the experimental work, there is a mathematical study which contains a complete derivation of local solute redistribution equations based on Fleming's approach under different solute diffusion mechanisms in the dendritic solid.
The mathematical model of derived solute equations in part I for equiaxed dendritic solidification with melt convection streams and interdendritic thermo-metallurgical strain is applied numerically to predict macrosegregation distributions with different diffusing mechanisms in dendritic solid. Numerical and experimental results are present for solidification of a Al-4.5% Cu alloy inside horizontal rectangular cavity at different superheats. The numerical simulations were performed by using simpler method developed by Patanker. The experiments were conducted to measure the cooling curves via thermocouples and the metallurgical examinations to measure the grain size and macrosegregation distributions in Part I. Preliminary validity of the model is demonstrated by the qualitative and quantitative agreements between the measurements and predications of cooling curves and predicted macrosegregation distributions including mushy permeability and interdendritic strain. In addition, several important features of macrosegregation in equiaxed dendritic solidification are identified through this combined experimental and numerical study. Also, quantitative agreements between the numerical simulations and experiments reveal several areas for future research work. The differences and errors between predicted macrosegregation results under different diffusing mechanisms have been discussed. The mathematical model of derived solute equations in Part I for equiaxed dendritic solidification with melt convection streams and thermal is applied numerically to predict macrosegregation distributions with different diffusing mechanisms in dendritic solid. Numerical and experimental results are present for solidification of a Al-4.5% Cu alloy inside horizontal rectangular cavity at different superheats.
A computer program has been developed to calculate the working range for series of two-symmetrical grooves including oval, round, false round, square and diamond shapes. Eight different pass designs are compared. The geometry of rolling or entry bar height over roll radius is in the range 0.09-0.26 for squares, 0.10-0.23 for false round and 0.06-0.21 for ovals. Square-oval and round-oval have similar flexibility, but in the round-oval sequence, the flexibility can be extended by opening up the gaps and run the rounds as false rounds. In the square-oval sequence the flexibility can be improved by making the squares with larger corner radii but the reduction capability will be reduced. The false round-oval sequence has the best flexibility and the working range can be extended by making "flatter" ovals. Improvement of the roll pass design in Fagersta Stainless AB has made it possible to roll wire rod with higher flexibility and better quality.
Surface defects in wire rod and bar rolling are common and well-known to mill people. Nowadays, surface defects are not accepted on high-alloyed steel wire rods. The steel making, casting and rolling processes give rise to defects. Also, the final handling of the wire and bar can destroy the surface. In this work, artificial V-shaped cracks in the longitudinal direction were investigated for different reduction series. The false round-oval series are known as a series for high quality steels and are usually better than square-oval series. Experiments confirmed that in the false round-oval sequences a surface crack in the groove bottom may open up during rolling at the same time as its depth is reduced, which is a beneficial situation. Surface cracks found at 45degrees to the rolling direction, at groove "corners" and on free surfaces will be closed or reduced in depth. The closing of cracks is detrimental since the cracks usually hide rolled-in oxides beneath the bar surface. The experiments showed that for the subsequent oval-false round sequence the visible crack at the groove bottom will be closed and become shallower. The cracks at 45degrees and on the free sides will also be closed, but deeper causing a serious surface defect. An FE-analysis was carried out, explaining the experimental results. Flat oval grooves are better than round ovals and false rounds are superior to square for opening and decreasing the depth of a longitudinal crack. It is difficult to eliminate a surface defect constituting a closed crack.
Over the last few decades, a number of CFD models have been dedicated to increasing the understanding of the decarburization processes in steelmaking. However, these processes are highly complex with large variations in time and length, and this makes the systems extremely demanding to simulate. Several reports have been published where parts of the processes have been investigated numerically, but to date no models have been presented that can handle the entire complexity of the processes. Here, a review of the research performed on the subject from 1998 to 2016 is given. A table summarizing the models used and the key focus of the studies is given, and it can be concluded that the effort put in so far to investigate the decarburization in steelmaking is substantial, but not complete. The currently available numerical models give an insight into process parameters such as reactions, mixing time, temperature distribution and thermal losses, off-gas post combustion and de-dusting, and also nozzle configuration. With the recent developments in numerical modeling and the increase in hardware capability, the future of simulation and modeling of the decarburization processes in steelmaking seems bright.
A two dimensional axisymmetric model was developed to predict the heat flux in a steelmaking ladle during the teeming process. The model predicts dynamically the flow fields in both liquid phase and gas phase along with the movement of the liquid upper surface. The model also predicts the temperature distributions in the liquid metal, gas phase and all layers in the ladle wall. Industrial measurements using infrared radiation camera inside the ladle after teeming and at the wall outside the ladle during the whole process were carried out. The model predictions were found to be in agreement with the measured data. It was found that the heat transfer to the surrounding atmosphere and the conductivity of the highly insulating layer were the most important factors for the heat loss. The decrease of the thickness of the working lining was found to have limited effect on the total heat flux.
To predict the temperature distribution in the ladle wall during the preheating process a two dimensional model was developed. The model calculated the heat transfer and the velocity field in the gas phase inside the ladle as well as the heat transfer in the solid walls during the preheating process. Measurements of the temperature in an industrial lade were carried out using an infrared radiation (IR) camera. The measurements were made inside and outside the ladle. The model predictions were found to be in reasonably good agreement with the measured temperatures. It was found that the preheating time could be minimized when the working lining became thinner. The effect of the distance between the lid and the ladle was also studied by the model. The results indicated that there was no significant temperature change on the upper side wall of the ladle. On the lower side wall and bottom the temperature changed slightly. The temperature difference in the lower part of the ladle could be explained by the larger flame distance from the bottom layer.
In order to apply the hot wire method for metallurgical slags at steelmaking temperatures, a numerical model was developed, cold model experiments were conducted and test measurements using a high temperature experimental setup were carried out. To minimize natural convection and obtain more reliable measurements, the crucible diameter, the hot-wire diameter, the applied current, the position of the wire in the crucible, and the cooling on the upper surface of the crucible were studied. Investigations into the choice of sheathing material of the circuit exposed to the slag were also made. It was found that only certain materials were suitable for slag measurements depending on slag composition and temperature. The electrical resistivity of the hot wire was measured to make the thermal conductivity calculation more reliable. The wire diameter also played a major role, because of the heat generation per surface area. The thermal conductivity should be derived from the values measured during the first seconds. In this initial stage, the effect of the natural convection as a function of the wire position in the crucible, the cooling on the top surface, and the diameter of the crucible are negligible. A compromise has to be made in choosing the electrical current, since higher current results in higher sensitivity but at the same time in more natural convection.
Slag samples, hot-metal samples and hot-metal temperatures were obtained during tapping of two blast furnaces. Sampling was carried out at different time points during tapping of three separate heats. The size distribution and composition of metal droplets found in the slag were determined using scanning electron microscopy. Only metal droplets above 0.75 mu m could be counted and analysed. All droplets were below 8 mu m in diameter and the great majority of these droplets were found to be between 0.75 and 2 Pm. The size distribution did not differ significantly for different slag samples. Iron was the main droplet component. Electron probe microanalysis showed that the droplets contained small amounts of carbon. The percentage of the area in a studied cross-section that was covered with metal droplets varied between 0.01 and 0.07%. Calculations based on Stoke's law showed that the distance droplets travel in the slag is in the micron range. Slag samples taken in the beginning of slag tapping contained more droplets than those taken in the middle of slag tapping, an indication that most droplets can be found in the area near the furnace wall. Some droplets were determined to have magnesium enrichment at the external surface.
Isothermal holding following intercritical annealing is usually used in microstructure control, e.g., fractions and stabilities of retained-austenite (RA). Fe-0.22C-2.5Mn-0.47Si-0.41Cr-0.02Nb (mass%) steel is subjected to intercritical annealing and isothermal treatment at 250, 300, 350, and 400 degrees C to elucidate the impact on microstructures and mechanical properties by means of electron microscopy and uniaxial tensile test, respectively. The results show that the isothermal holding temperature is vital for the formed phases, including the morphology, volume fraction, and carbon content of RA in the processed steels. The tensile test results indicate that the mechanical properties including Ultra-tensile strength (UTS), Yield strength (YS), as well as Total Elongation (TEL) are attributed to the synthetic action of all constituents of phase morphology and corresponding fractions, e.g., hard-to-soft phase ratio, morphology and fraction of RA, dispersed precipitates. An excellent combination of strength-ductility of the present multiphase steel has been explained in terms of their specific microstructure.
Microstructural characterization as well as mechanical property determination of a cold-rolled ferritic steel subjected to isothermal and cyclic non-isothermal annealing, has been carried out by utilizing comprehensive experimental analysis. The findings show that the variables of cyclic annealing, that is, amplitude, ramp rate, and intermediate holding time exhibit a great effect on the grain growth kinetics and the evolution of grain boundaries. The resulting grain size of the cyclic annealed steel is mainly attributed to the following factors: 1) the accelerating effect in the grain growth behavior caused by the additional driving force available during cyclic annealing, which increases with increasing amplitude; 2) the retarding effect due to the low equivalent isothermal temperature. Furthermore, the formation of low sigma- coincidence site lattice (sigma CSL) boundaries and the strength of gamma-fiber texture are enhanced through the cyclic annealing compared to the isothermal annealing. The potential advantages of continuous cyclic annealing in the steel industry are explored, in comparison with the conventional isothermal and cyclic annealing with an intermediate soaking time.
To meet the future environmental challenges, hydrogen direct reduced iron (H-DRI) is expected to constitute the principal material for virgin steel production. For an efficient value chain, knowledge of the melting mechanism and dephosphorization mechanism of H-DRI is needed. The in situ melting behavior, the melting mechanism, and the dephosphorization mechanism during heating of H-DRI are investigated experimentally at 1773 and 1873 K. It is found that the melting rate of H-DRI varies with the reduction degree (91–99.5%), increasing with decreasing reduction degree. An autogenous slag forms during heating and flows through the pores of the H-DRI, thus increasing its effective thermal conductivity. The fraction of filled pores varies with reduction degree explaining the difference in melting rate. At this stage, the dissolution of apatite is initiated and completed upon melting of the metal phase. A gradual reversion of phosphorus from the autogenous slag to the liquid metal is observed after complete melting. The rate of reversion is discussed based on the properties of the H-DRI, for example, reduction degree and carbon addition.
Clusters of Al2O3 inclusions in a liquid stainless steel (18/8) and in a clogged ZrO2 nozzle after casting were studied during a pilot plant trial. Samples were taken from the melt at different holding times after an addition of 0.1 mass% Al. The characteristics (composition, size, number, and morphology) of clusters and clustered inclusions in the steel samples and in the clogged nozzle were investigated after electrolytic extraction and etching by using SEM. It was found that the Al2O3 inclusions in the clusters are transformed from a spherical into irregular and regular (with sharp edges) shape during the holding time. Most of the inclusions in the clusters (>80%) after a 6 min holding time are regular inclusions, which have sharp edges and flat faces. The size of the inclusions in clusters in the melt increased on average from 1.0 μm at a 1 min to 5.2 μm at a 12 min holding time. While the sizes of different types of inclusions in the clogged nozzle correspond to those present in the liquid steel at respective time, the frequency of spherical inclusions in the clogged nozzle is about 2–4 times larger (particularly near the nozzle wall) compared to that in the melt. Growth and transformation of Al2O3 clusters in the liquid steel at different holding times after an addition of Al and during casting were considered based on the obtained results.
During electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking process, burnt lime is charged together with other slag forming materials to attain a specific basicity of the slag and to achieve purification by removing unwanted elements. Herein, fly ash (FA) containing ≈60% CaO generated from pulp/paper mills is tested to partially (15–50%) replace primary lime (PL) in pilot scale EAF trials. The obtained results show good possibilities. It is found that an increased amount of FA instead of PL reduces the required amount of FeSi (up to 3 kg t−1 of scrap) and increases the sulfur content in the final slag. As a result, the amount of required slag/ton of steel can be decreased. However, the phosphorus content in the metal is slightly increased. The replacement ratio of FA will be limited by the acceptable phosphorus level in the final steel, due to higher phosphorus content in FA from pulp and paper mills compared with that in PL. Applications of FA as slag formers can reduce the consumption of natural resources in the metallurgical processes. In addition, it can reduce the amount of wastes from pulp/paper industries sent to landfill, which is important from an environmental point of view.
In the present work, the effects of the slag composition and heat-treatment conditions on the phase relationships in a number of Cr-containing industrial and synthetic slags were investigated with a view to control the precipitation of Cr-spinel in the slag phase. Gas/slag equilibrium technique was used for the chromium partition and the phase relationship study. The phase relationships in synthetic slags and industrial EAF slags supplied by Swedish steelmaking plants have been investigated experimentally in the temperature range of 1473-1873 K. The slags were re-melted, slow-cooled to, and soaked at targeted temperatures in controlled atmosphere. Two different heat-treatment sequences were used in the present experiments. The oxygen partial pressure (p(O2) = 10(-3) Pa) was maintained by a suitable mixture of CO and CO2 gases. Phases present and their compositions in the quenched slags were studied using X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The chromium content in the phases present was analyzed using wavelength-dispersive spectrometer (WDS). Chromium partition was found to depend on the heat-treatment temperature.
A new thermogravimetric setup was developed to study direct reduction of iron oxide under well-controlled experimental conditions. Pure and industrial hematite samples were isothermally reduced by hydrogen and carbon monoxide gaseous mixtures. Influences of gas composition, gas flow rate, and temperature on reduction were investigated. Reduction rates obtained using the new setup were higher compared to conventional thermogravimetric method. This difference was due to the time required to replace the inert gas with the reactant gas in the conventional method, which led to lower reduction rate at the initial stage. Carbon deposited on the surface of the pellets at relatively high gas flow rates and at low temperatures. The presence of pure iron and high carbon potential in the gas phase were the cause for carbon deposition. Study of partially reduced samples illustrated that the outer layer of pellet with high iron content thickened as reduction proceeded inside the pellet. Closure of micro-pores and formation of dense iron phase in this layer decelerated diffusion of reactant and product gases, and led to decrease of reduction rate at later stages of reaction. At lower temperatures, this effect was coupled with carbon deposition. Therefore, the reduction was seriously hindered.
In this study, the composition, size, and number of large non-metallic inclusions (>20μm) are investigated in a commercial refined FeTi70R alloy, which is used for deoxidation and alloying of different industrial high-quality steels. It is found that this ferroalloy contains different complex oxide inclusions, which sizes vary from 20 to 260μm. These different complex inclusions contain mostly CaO, SiO2, and TiOx. When adding FeTi70R alloy in the steel during the final stage of ladle treatment, these large size inclusions can significantly decrease the cleanliness and mechanical properties of steel. Therefore, the evolution and behavior of these inclusions after addition of this ferroalloy into the liquid iron or Fe-40Ni-20Cr steel are investigated in laboratory experiments. In addition, the results from the laboratory scale experiments are compared to results obtained from industrial heats using Alloy 825. A consideration of the evolution mechanism of large inclusions after an addition of a FeTi70R alloy helps to understand their behavior in the melt. It also helps to estimate their possible harmful effects on the quality of this steel grade during commercial production.
It is well known that inclusions affect the properties of the steel and other alloys. The importance of understanding the behavior of the inclusions during production can never be overstated. This study has examined the main types of big size (> 10 mu m) inclusions that exist in Ni-based Alloy at the end of ladle treatment and after casting during industrial production of Ni based Alloys 825. Sources, mechanisms of formation and behavior of different type large size inclusions in Alloy 825 are discussed based on 2 and 3D investigations of inclusion characteristics (such as, morphology, composition, size, and number) and thermodynamic considerations. The large size inclusions found can be divided in spherical (Type I and II) inclusions and in clusters (Type III-V). Type I-A inclusions (Al2O3-CaO-MgO) originate from the slag. Type I-B inclusions and Type II inclusions consist of CaO-Al2O3-MgO and Al2O3-TiO2-CaO, respectively. Both types originate from the FeTi70R alloy. Type III clusters (Al2O3-MgO-CaO) are formed during an Al deoxidation of the Ni-based alloy. Type IV clusters (Al2O3-TiO2-CaO) formed from small inclusions, which are precipitated in local zones which contain high Ti and Al levels. These clusters are transformed to Type III clusters over time in the ladle. Finally, Type V clusters are typical TiN clusters.
It is well known that inclusions affect the properties of alloys. Therefore, the importance of understanding what inclusions exist and how they behave cannot be overstated. This study has examined the behavior of Al2O3–MgO particles and clusters in the melt during the ladle treatment of Alloy 825, who is a Ni-based Alloy. The effect of different stirring directions of electromagnetic stirring in combination with gas stirring is discussed based on three-dimensional investigations of the clustered particles. More specifically, the composition, size, and number of particles and clusters are determined after electrolytic extraction of metal samples by using SEM in combination with EDS. The results show that the agglomeration of Al2O3–MgO particles in the melt is faster for an upward induction stirring combined with a gas stirring in comparison to a downward stirring combined with a gas stirring. However, the total removal of clusters from the melt is more effective when using a downward induction stirring compared to when using an upward induction stirring, especially for large size clusters (>11.2 mm). The effect of the different stirring modes on the behavior of the Al2O3–MgO particles and clusters in the melt for the ladle treatment experiments agree with the theoretical predictions based on Stokes’, Brownian, and Turbulent collisions.