We have studied zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and iron phthalocyanine (FePc) thick films and monolayers on Au(111) using photoelectron spectroscopy and x-ray absorption spectroscopy. Both molecules are adsorbed flat on the surface at monolayer. ZnPc keeps this orientation in all investigated coverages, whereas FePc molecules stand up in the thick film. The stronger inter-molecular interaction of FePc molecules leads to change of orientation, as well as higher conductivity in FePc layer in comparison with ZnPc, which is reflected in thickness-dependent differences in core-level shifts. Work function changes indicate that both molecules donate charge to Au; through the pi-system. However, the Fe3d derived lowest unoccupied molecular orbital receives charge from the substrate when forming an interface state at the Fermi level. Thus, the central atom plays an important role in mediating the charge, but the charge transfer as a whole is a balance between the two different charge transfer channels; pi-system and the central atom.

In-situ scanning small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments have been performed to probe the,drying of a single suspended droplet of silica colloids. It has been demonstrated that the formation of a nanoparticle shell during drying can be confirmed just by measuring the temporal evolution of the spatial transmission profile across the drying droplet. The shrinkage of the droplet stops once the shell is formed. The temporal dependence Of the shell thickness and droplet radius has been estimated by quautitative analysis of the functionality of the transmission profiles. It is' revealed that the position of the correlation peak originating from interactions between silica nanoparticles evolves linearly during the initial stage of drying and exhibits sigmoidal growth behavior in later stages. The interaction between colloidal particles, in different drying stages has been investigated We provide,experimental confirmation of the transition from repulsive interaction to a capillary driven short-range,attraction,during shell formation. The present work demonstrates that in situ scanning SAXS on,a suspended droplet is an invaluable technique for monitoring the dynamic self organization of colloids as it probes the drying of complex,fluids without the interference of a substrate.

We present an extensive structural analysis of hybrid architectures prepared by the soft incorporation of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) within an organic semiconductor matrix of diindenoperylene (DIP). Such soft or noninvasive deposition of nanoparticles within organic semiconducting host matrices not only minimizes the influence of the deposition process on the order and properties of the organic host molecules, but also offers additional control in the process of incorporation. The hybrid structures were characterized by X-ray scattering techniques including grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS), grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXD), X-ray reflectivity (XRR), and complemented by atomic force microscopy (AFM), photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) measurements. We show that different strategies of incorporating the nanoparticles in the host matrix lead to drastically different structure and morphologies. Particularly remarkable is the morphological change observed in the matrix of DIP as well as the AuNPs due to the influence of organic solvents, as evidenced by TEM tomography measurements, which revealed the exact location of the AuNPs within the organic host. It is also demonstrated that AuNPs can be successfully used as tunable templates for the growth of the organic semiconductors with desired island sizes and distances.

Thin films of titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc) have been adsorbed on InSb(1 1 1) (3 x 3) and InSb(1 0 0) c(8 x 2) surfaces and studied with respect to their electronic structure using photoemission (PES), density functional theory (DFT) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The interface chemical interaction is weak in both cases; no adsorbate induced surface band bending is observed and the energy level alignment across the interface is determined by the original position of the substrate Fermi level and the charge neutrality level of the molecule. Room temperature adsorption results in disordered films on both surfaces. The behaviors after annealing are different; on InSb(1 0 0) well-ordered molecular chains form along and on top of the In-rows, whereas on (1 1 1) no long range order is observed. The disorder leads to intermolecular interactions between the titanyl group and neighboring benzene rings leading to a split of TiOPc HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) by as much as 0.8 eV.

Nacre-like structures have attracted great interest in recent years due to their outstanding toughness, stiffness and impact resistance. However, there is a challenge associated with engineering nacre-like calcium phosphate crystals. In this study, thin nacreous-like monetite sheets were synthesized in solutions guided by a surfactant. The influence of temperature, initial pH, Ca/P ratio, stirring time and the concentration of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) on the nacre-like structure has been studied. Findings showed that a nacre-like structure could only be formed at a high temperature (90 °C), high initial pH (11), sufficient stirring time (3 h), and under the presence of CTAB. A small-angle X-ray scattering experiment carried out at a synchrotron radiation facility showed that the distance between nanolayers was around 2.6 nm and TEM confirmed the fine sheet-like structure. The mechanism of the formation the nacre-like structure and its characterization were discussed.

The performance of thin carboxylated cellulose nanofiber-based (CNF) membranes as proton exchange membranes in fuel cells has been measured in situ as a function of CNF surface charge density (600 and 1550 μmol g⁻¹), counterion (H⁺ or Na⁺), membrane thickness and fuel cell relative humidity (RH 55 to 95%). The structural evolution of the membranes as a function of RH, as measured by Small Angle X-ray Scattering, shows that water channels are formed only above 75% RH. The amount of absorbed water was shown to depend on the membrane surface charge and counter ions (H⁺ or Na⁺). The high affinity of CNF for water and the high aspect ratio of the nanofibers, together with a well-defined and homogenous membrane structure, ensures a proton conductivity exceeding 1 mS cm⁻¹ at 30 °C between 65 and 95% RH. This is two orders of magnitude larger than previously reported values for cellulose materials and only one order of magnitude lower than Nafion 212. Moreover, the CNF membranes are characterized by a lower hydrogen crossover than Nafion, despite being ≈30% thinner. Thanks to their environmental compatibility and promising fuel cell performance the CNF membranes should be considered for new generation proton exchange membrane fuel cells.

We use photoelectron spectroscopy, low energy electron diffraction, scanning tunneling microscopy, and density functional theory to investigate coverage dependent iodine structures on Pd(110). At 0.5 ML (monolayer), a c(2 x 2) structure is formed with iodine occupying the four-fold hollow site. At increasing coverage, the iodine layer compresses into a quasi-hexagonal structure at 2/3 ML, with iodine occupying both hollow and long bridge positions. There is a substantial difference in electronic structure between these two iodine sites, with a higher electron density on the bridge bonded iodine. In addition, numerous positively charged iodine near vacancies are found along the domain walls. These different electronic structures will have an impact on the chemical properties of these iodine atoms within the layer.

We investigated the spray deposition and subsequent self-assembly during drying of a polystyrene nanoparticle dispersion with in situ grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering at high time resolution. During the fast deposition of the dispersion and the subsequent evaporation of the solvent, different transient stages of nanoparticle assembly can be identified. In the first stage, the solvent starts to evaporate without ordering of the nanoparticles. During the second stage, large-scale structures imposed by the breakup of the liquid film are observable. In this stage, the solvent evaporates further and nanoparticle ordering starts. In the late third drying stage, the nanoparticles self-assemble into the final layer structure.

Macroscopic beads of water-based gels consisting of uncharged and partially charged beta-(1,4)-D-glucan polymers were developed to be used as a novel model material for studying the water induced swelling of the delignified plant fiber walls. The gel beads were prepared by drop-wise precipitation of solutions of dissolving grade fibers carboxymethylated to different degrees. The internal structure was analyzed using Solid State Cross-Polarization Magic Angle Spinning Carbon-13 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Small Angle X-ray Scattering showing that the internal structure could be considered a homogeneous, non-crystalline and molecularly dispersed polymer network. When beads with different charge densities were equilibrated with aqueous solutions of different ionic strengths and/or pH, the change in water uptake followed the trends expected for weak polyelectrolyte gels and the trends found for cellulose-rich fibers. When dried and subsequently immersed in water the beads also showed an irreversible loss of swelling depending on the charge and type of counter-ion which is commonly also found for cellulose-rich fibers. Taken all these results together it is clear that the model cellulose-based beads constitute an excellent tool for studying the fundamentals of swelling of cellulose rich plant fibers, aiding in the elucidation of the different molecular and supramolecular contributions to the swelling.

Optically transparent wood (TW) with transmittance as high as 85% and haze of 71% was obtained using a delignified nanoporous wood template. The template was prepared by removing the light-absorbing lignin component, creating nanoporosity in the wood cell wall. Transparent wood was prepared by successful impregnation of lumen and the nanoscale cellulose fiber network in the cell wall with refractive-index-matched prepolymerized methyl methacrylate (MMA). During the process, the hierarchical wood structure was preserved. Optical properties of TW are tunable by changing the cellulose volume fraction. The synergy between wood and PMMA was observed for mechanical properties. Lightweight and strong transparent wood is a potential candidate for lightweight low-cost, light-transmitting buildings and transparent solar cell windows.

Non-leaking, green materials with high content of phase change materials (PCM) can conserve solar energy and contribute to a sustainable society. Here, paraffin was encapsulated by nanocellulose (CNF) through a pickering emulsion method, while simultaneously forming a composite material. The thermodynamic drive for phase separation was confirmed by molecular modeling. Particle formation was characterized by dynamic light scattering and they were processed into stable PCM/CNF composites in the form of PCM paper structures with favorable mechanical properties. The PCM composite was lightweight and showed a solid content of paraffin of more than 72 wt%. Morphology was characterized using FE-SEM. The thermal regulation function of the PCM composite was demonstrated in the form of a model roof under simulated sunlight. No obvious leakage was observed during heating/cooling cycles, as supported by DSC and SAXS data. The PCM composite can be extended to panels used in energy-efficient smart buildings with thermal regulation integrated in load-bearing structures.

Luminescent transparent wood is prepared by combining the complementary properties of naturally grown anisotropic porous wood and luminescent quantum dots. The wood structure introduces strong diffused luminescence and waveguiding, which can potentially be exploited for optoelectronic and photovoltaic applications, such as for planar illumination sources and luminescent buildings/furniture. Images below show the transparency, haze, and luminescence of quantum dot wood.

The incorporation of metal oxide (e.g. Al2O3) nanoparticles has a pronounced positive effect on low-density polyethylene (LDPE) as an insulating material for high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) cables, the electrical conductivity being decreased by one to two orders of magnitude and charge species being trapped by the nanoparticles. The risk of debonding between the nanoparticles and the polymer matrix leading to electrical treeing via electrical discharges in the formed cavities was the motivation for this study. Scanning electron microscope (SEM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and X-ray ptychographic tomography were used to study a series of LDPE nanocomposites which contained Al2O3 nanoparticles treated with silanes having terminal alkyl groups of different lengths (methyl, octyl and octadecyl). When specimens were subjected to a tensile strain (a typical specimen stretched beyond the onset of necking consisted of three zones according to SEM of specimens that were studied after removal of the external force: an essentially cavitation-free zone with low local plastic strain, a transitional zone in which local plastic strain showed a marked increase and the revealed concentration of permanent cavities increased with increasing plastic strain and a highly strained zone with extensive cavitation), the cavitation occurred mainly at the polymer-nanoparticle interface according to SEM and X-ray ptychographic tomography and according to SEM progressed with increasing plastic strain through an initial phase with no detectable formation of permanent cavities to a period of very fast cavitation and finally almost an order of magnitude slower cavitation. The polymer/nanoparticle interface was fractal before deformation, as revealed by the profile of the Porod region in SAXS, presumably due to the existence of bound polymers at the nanoparticle surface. A pronounced decrease in the interface fractal dimension was observed when the strain exceeded a critical value; a phenomenon attributed to the stress-induced de-bonding of nanoparticles. The strain-dependence of the interface fractal dimension value at low strain levels between composites containing differently treated nanoparticles seems to be an indicator of the strength of the nanoparticle-polymer interface.

We investigate the layer formation of enzymatic cellulose by airbrush spray coating on silicon oxide surfaces. The layer structure and morphology of enzymatic cellulose films in the thickness range between 86 nm and 2.1 A mu m is determined as a function of the spray coating procedures. For each spray coating step, layer buildup, surface topography, crystallinity as well as the nanoscale structure are probed with atomic force microscopy and surface-sensitive X-ray scattering methods. Without intermittent drying, the film thickness saturates; with intermittent drying, a linear increase in layer thickness with the number of spray pulses is observed. A closed cellulose layer was always observed. The crystallinity remains unchanged; the nanoscale structures show three distinct sizes. Our results indicate that the smallest building blocks increasingly contribute to the morphology inside the cellulose network for thicker films, showing the importance of tailoring the cellulose nanofibrils. For a layer-by-layer coating, intermittent drying is mandatory.

Electrical trees are one reason for the breakdown of insulating materials in electrical power systems. An understanding of the growth of electrical trees plays a crucial role in the development of reliable high voltage direct current (HVDC) power grid systems with transmission voltages up to 1 MV. A section that contained an electrical tree in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) has been visualized in three dimensions (3D) with a resolution of 92 nm by X-ray ptychographic tomography. The 3D imaging revealed prechannel-formations with a lower density with the width of a couple of hundred nanometers formed around the main branch of the electrical tree. The prechannel structures were partially connected with the main tree via paths through material with a lower density, proving that the tree had grown in a step-by-step manner via the prestep structures formed in front of the main channels. All the prechannel structures had a size well below the limit of the Paschen law and were thus not formed by partial discharges. Instead, it is suggested that the prechannel structures were formed by electro-mechanical stress and impact ionization, where the former was confirmed by simulations to be a potential explanation with electro-mechanical stress tensors being almost of the same order of magnitude as the short-term modulus of low-density polyethylene.

Phthalocyanines (Pcs) are capable of converting sunlight into electric energy when adsorbed on TiO2 in a dye-sensitized solar cell. Of special interest in this type of cell is the energy level alignment as well as how molecules adsorb on the surface as it determines the output of the cell. We investigated the FePc-TiO2(110) interface using scanning tunneling microscopy, synchrotron-based photoelectron spectroscopy, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. We found a strong coupling of the first-layer FePc to the substrate resulting in an alteration of the electronic structure and charge transfer from the molecules. The FePc in the second layer is not severely affected by the bonding to the surface and has bulk-like electronic properties. The growth of FePc thin films proceeds in a layer plus island mode, and the molecular plane is parallel to the surface. The energy level alignment at the interface is determined, and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital is found above the conduction band minimum of the oxide substrate.

Surface modification of reactive oxide substrates to obtain a less strongly interacting template for dye adsorption may be a way to enhance performance in dye-sensitized solar cells. In this work, we have investigated the electronic and structural properties of 4,4(')-bipyridine (bipy) as modifier adsorbed on the TiO2(110) surface. The modified surface is then coated with iron phthalocyanine (FePc) and the properties of this heterostructure are investigated with synchrotron based photoelectron spectroscopy, x-ray absorption spectroscopy, and scanning tunneling microscopy. We find that a saturated monolayer consisting of standing bipy molecules with one nitrogen atom pointing outward is formed on the oxide surface. FePc adsorb in molecular chains along the [001] direction on top of bipy and ordered in a tilted arrangement with adjacent molecules partially overlapping. Already from the first layer, the electronic properties of FePc resemble those of multilayer films. FePc alone is oxidized on the TiO2(110) surface, but preadsorbed bipy prevents this reaction. The energy level lineup at the interface is clarified.

Formation of highly stable metal nanostructures in a Nafion(R) membrane with various aspect ratios has been of considerable research interest in recent years. However, there is a need for a proper understanding of the growth mechanism of such nanostructures in Nafion(R) (sometimes larger than the size of water-sulfonate ionic clusters of the membrane). In this work, the early growth kinetics of silver nanoparticles (NPs) in Nafion(R)-117 ion-exchange membrane during in situ L-ascorbic acid reduction of Ag+ ions by time resolved in situ small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) using synchrotron radiation with a time resolution of 50 ms are revealed for the first time. The SAXS analyses, corroborated by transmission electron microscopy, showed that the sizes of NPs increase rapidly together with their number density until they attain a certain size that could be accommodated in the similar to 5 nm water-sulfonate ionic clusters. Further growth takes place either by self-agglomeration of the particles ejected out from the water-sulfonic acid clusters or by continuous reduction of metal ions on the existing NP surfaces (uniformly or on a specific plane) leading to formation of bigger nanostructures with various aspect ratios. The time resolved information of NP growth provides an opportunity for the controlled synthesis of metal NPs with a definite size, shape and size distribution for a specific application. The catalytic properties of Ag NPs formed in the membrane were examined using borohydride reduction of a model dye methylene blue. It was observed that smaller Ag NPs with a mean diameter similar to 3 nm, confined in the hydrophilic clusters of the Nafion(R) matrix, have reasonably good catalytic activity and a lower lag time for the onset of reduction.

In optoelectronic devices based on quantum dot arrays, thin nanolayers of gold are preferred as stable metal contacts and for connecting recombination centers. The optimal morphology requirements are uniform arrays with precisely controlled positions and sizes over a large area with long range ordering since this strongly affects device performance. To understand the development of gold layer nanomorphology, the detailed mechanism of structure formation are probed with time-resolved grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) during gold sputter deposition. Gold is sputtered on a CdSe quantum dot array with a characteristic quantum dot spacing of approximate to 7 nm. In the initial stages of gold nanostructure growth, a preferential deposition of gold on top of quantum dots occurs. Thus, the quantum dots act as nucleation sites for gold growth. In later stages, the gold nanoparticles surrounding the quantum dots undergo a coarsening to form a complete layer comprised of gold-dot clusters. Next, growth proceeds dominantly via vertical growth of gold on these gold-dot clusters to form an gold capping layer. In this capping layer, a shift of the cluster boundaries due to ripening is found. Thus, a templating of gold on a CdSe quantum dot array is feasible at low gold coverage.

We demonstrate glancing-angle deposition of gold on a nanostructured diblock copolymer, namely polystytene-block-poly(methyl methacrylate) thin film. Exploiting the selective wetting of gold on the polystyrene block, we are able to fabricate directional hierarchical structures. We prove the asymmetric growth of the gold nanoparticles and are able to extract the different growth laws by in situ scattering methods. The optical anisotropy of these hierarchical hybrid materials is further probed by angular resolved spectroscopic methods. This approach enables us to tailor functional hierarchical layers in nanodevices, such as nanoantennae arrays, organic photovoltaics, and sensor electronics.

Microfocus X-ray scattering and micro Raman spectroscopy have been applied to study the β-transcrystalline morphology in isotactic polypropylene. The transformation from the α- to the β-form through the so-called bifurcation of growth mechanism has been investigated with high spatial resolution. We found that the mixed α-β region does not present spatial correlation along the shearing direction, implying that there is no cooperative crystallization from the different β-nucleation centres. In addition, a strong change in the lamellar orientation of the α-form thin layer that induces the growth of the β-crystallites has been observed for the first time. Finally, changes in the relative intensities of some selected Raman bands allowed the observation of the α-β transformation process at the molecular level. (© 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim) In fibre-reinforced materials the interaction between the fibre and the matrix strongly affects the final properties of the material. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the interface is of utmost importance. By applying a battery of different microscopic techniques, we investigate the transcrystalline polymorphic morphology of isotactic polypropylene with unprecedented spatial resolution.

The spray-deposition technique is an effective and scalable method to deposit zinc oxide nanostructures, which are used as active layers for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) in the present study. The dynamics of structural evolution are studied with grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering during in situ spraying. Nanostructured films obtained through multiple spray shots provide suitable structural length scales, morphologies, and film thicknesses; this leads to reasonable performance in a DSSC with the highest short-circuit current density reported so far.

We report on the formation of ultra-high aspect ratio nanopores in silicon bulk material using photo-assisted electrochemical etching. Here, n-type silicon is used as anode in contact with hydrofluoric acid. Based on the local dissolution of surface atoms in pre-defined etching pits, pore growth and pore diameter are, respectively, driven and controlled by the supply of minority charge carriers generated by backside illumination. Thus, arrays with sub-100 nm wide pores were fabricated. Similar to macropore etching, it was found that the pore diameter is proportional to the etching current, i.e., smaller etching currents result in smaller pore diameters. To find the limits under which nanopores with controllable diameter still can be obtained, etching was performed at very low current densities (several mu A cm(-2)). By local etching, straight nanopores with aspect ratios above 1000 (similar to 19 mu m deep and similar to 15 nm pore tip diameter) were achieved. However, inherent to the formation of such narrow pores is a radius of curvature of a few nanometers at the pore tip, which favors electrical breakdown resulting in rough pore wall morphologies. Lowering the applied bias is adequate to reduce spiking pores but in most cases also causes etch stop. Our findings on bulk silicon provide a realistic chance towards sub-10 nm pore arrays on silicon membranes, which are of great interest for molecular filtering and possibly DNA sequencing.

Narrow bandgap semiconductors GaSb, InAs, and InSb are important building blocks for infrared photodetectors based on type-II InSb quantum dots or an InAs/GaSb strained layer superlattice. Understanding the surface chemical composition of these materials can provide valuable information that enables optimization of device surface passivation techniques leading towards surface leakage free IR photodetectors. We report on an investigation into Ga-, In-, Sb-, and As-oxides and other chemical species on the surface of untreated, dry etched and thermally treated GaSb, InAs and InSb samples by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The experimental results reveal the presence of Sb- and Ga-oxides on the surfaces of the untreated and treated GaSb samples. Both Sb- and In-oxides were observed on the surface of all InSb samples, and especially the dry etched sample had thicker oxide layers. In the case of the InAs samples, not only In-and As-oxides XPS signals were obtained, but also AsCl species were found on the ICP dry etched sample. These results helped to analyze the dark current of our fabricated IR detectors.

Highly efficient poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT):phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) bulk heterojunction solar cells are achieved by using an inverted geometry. The development of the morphology is investigated as a function of the multilayer stack assembling during the inverted solar cell preparation. Atomic force microscopy is used to reveal the surface morphology of each stack, and the inner structure is probed with grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering. It is found that the smallest domain size of P3HT is introduced by replicating the fluorine-doped tin oxide structure underneath. The structure sizes of the P3HT:PCBM active layer are further optimized after thermal annealing. Compared to devices with standard geometry, the P3HT:PCBM layer in the inverted solar cells shows smaller domain sizes, which are much closer to the exciton diffusion length in the polymer. The decrease in domain sizes is identified as the main reason for the improvement of the device performance.

Fast concentration-induced diffusion-limited lyotropic phase transitions can be studied in situ with millisecond time resolution using continuous flow microfluidics in combination with microfocus small-angle X-ray scattering. The method was applied to follow a classical self-assembly sequence where amphiphiles assemble into micelles, which subsequently assemble into an ordered lattice via a disorder/order transition. As a model system we selected the self-assembly of an amphiphilic block copolymer induced by the addition of a nonsolvent. Using microchannel hydrodynamic flow-focusing, large concentration gradients can be generated, leading to a deep quench from the miscible to the microphase-separated state. Within milliseconds the block copolymers assembly via a spinodal microphase separation into micelles, followed by a disorder/order transition into an FCC liquid-crystalline phase with late-stage domain growth and shear-induced domain orientation into a mesocrystal. A comparison with a slow macroscopic near-equilibrium kinetic experiment shows that the fast structural transitions follow a direct pathway to the equilibrium structure without the trapping of metastable states.

This paper presents the absorption, mechanical, and antimicrobial properties of novel types of biofoams based on wheat-gluten (WG) and its biohybrids with silica. The hybrid WG foams were in situ polymerized with silica using two different silanes. When immersed in water, the 90-95% porous WG and silica-modified hybrid WG foams showed a maximum water uptake between 32 and 11 times the original sample weight. The maximum uptake was only between 4.3 and 6.7 times the initial weight in limonene (a nonpolar liquid) but showed reversible absorption/desorption and that the foams could be dried into their original shape. The different foams had a cell size of 2-400 mu m, a density of 60-163 kg/m(3), and a compression modulus of 1-9 MPa. The integrity of the foams during swelling in water was improved by cross-linking with glutaraldehyde (GA) or by a thermal treatment at 130 degrees C, which polymerized the proteins. In the never-dried state, the foam acted as a sponge, and it was possible to squeeze out water and soak it repeatedly. If the foam was dried to its glassy state, then the cells collapsed and did not open again even if the solid foam was reimmersed in water, saving as a sensor mechanism that can be used to reveal unintended exposure to polar liquids such as water under a product's service life. Small-angle X-ray scattering revealed that the gliadin-correlated structure expanded and then disappeared in the presence of water. The foam was made antimicrobial by impregnation with a Lanasol solution (a bromophenol existing in algae). It was also shown that the foam can act as a transfer/storage medium for liquids such as natural oils (rapeseed oil) and as a slow-release matrix for surfactant chemicals.

The photosensitive molecule adsorption on titanium dioxide (TiO₂) forms the so-called “dye sensitized TiO₂” system, a typical organic/oxide heterojunction, which is of great interest in catalysis and energy applications, e.g. dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC). Traditionally, the transition metal complex dyes are the focus of the study. However, as the fast development of the organic semiconductors and invention of new pure organic dyes, it is necessary to expand the research horizon to cover these molecules and concrete the fundamental understanding of their basic properties, especially during sensitization.In this work, we focus on two different photosensitive molecules: phthalocyanines and triphenylamine-based dyes. Phthalocyanines are organic semiconductors with symmetric macro aromatic molecular structures. They possess good photoelectrical properties and good thermal and chemical stability, which make them widely used in the organic electronic industries. Triphenylamine-based dyes are new types of pure organic dyes which deliver high efficiency and reduce the cost of DSSC. They can be nominated as one of the strong candidates to substitute the ruthenium complex dyes in DSSC. The researches were carried out using classic surface science techniques on single crystal substrates and under ultrahigh vacuum condition. The photosensitive molecules were deposited by organic molecular beam deposition. The substrate reconstruction and ordering were checked by low energy electron diffraction. The molecular electronic, geometric structures and charge transfer properties were characterized by photoelectron spectroscopy, near edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy and resonant photoelectron spectroscopy (RPES). Scanning tunneling microscopy is used to directly image the molecular adsorption.For phthalocyanines, we select MgPc, ZnPc, FePc and TiOPc, which showed a general charge transfer from molecule to the substrate when adsorbed on rutile TiO₂(110) surface with 1×1 and 1×2 reconstructions. This charge transfer can be prevented by modifying the TiO2 surface with pyridine derivatives (4-tert-butyl pyridine (4TBP), 2,2’-bipyridine and 4,4’-bipyridine), and furthermore the energy level alignment at the interface is modified by the surface dipole established by the pyridine molecules. Annealing also plays an important role to control the molecular structure and change the electronic structure together with the charge transfer properties, shown by TiOPc film. Special discussions were done for 4TBP for its ability to shift the substrate band bending by healing the oxygen vacancies, which makes it an important additive in the DSSC electrolyte. For the triphenylamine-based dye (TPAC), the systematic deposition enables the characterization of the coverage dependent changes of molecular electronic and geometric structures. The light polarization dependent charge transfer was revealed by RPES. Furthermore, the iodine doped TPAC on TiO₂ were investigated to mimic the electrolyte/dye/TiO₂ interface in the real DSSC.The whole work of this thesis aims to provide fundamental understanding of the interaction between photosensitive molecules on TiO₂ surfaces at molecular level in the monolayer region, e.g. the formation of interfacial states and the coverage dependent atomic and electronic structures, etc. We explored the potential of the application of new dyes and modified of the existing system by identifying their advantage and disadvantage. The results may benefit the fields of dye syntheses, catalysis researches and designs of organic photovoltaic devices.

Adsorption of titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc) on rutile TiO2(110) modified by a set of pyridine derivatives (2,2'-bipyridine, 4,4'-bipyridine, and 4-tert-butyl pyridine) has been investigated using synchrotron radiation based X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). For the unmodified TiOPc/TiO2 system, a strong charge transfer is observed from the first layer TiOPc into the substrate, which leads to a molecular layer at the interface with a depleted highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO). However, precovering the TiO2 surface with a saturated pyridine monolayer effectively reduce this process and leave the TiOPc in a less perturbed molecular state. Furthermore, the TiOPc HOMO and core levels are observed at different binding energies ranging by 0.3 eV on the three pyridine monolayers, which is ascribed to differences in surface potentials set up by the different pyridine/TiO2 systems.

Ultrathin titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc) layers have been studied on rutile TiO₂ (110) 1×1 and 1×2 surfaces by synchrotron radiation based photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The adsorption mode of TiOPc on the surface is of great interest in that it is strongly related to the efficiency of the charge transfer process between dye and surface. Core level spectra show that two different adsorption states coexist on both surfaces; an interfacial state that has strong interaction with the substrate while the other retains its molecular characteristics. The bonding for the interfacial state is suggested to be mainly in the 1×1 areas. Annealing significantly changes the distribution of molecules with a preferential adsorption along steps and (1x2) strands.

In the present work, we study the bonding of 4-tert-butyl pyridine (4TBP) to the TiO2(110) surface using photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The results show that at low coverage, 4TBP adsorbs preferentially on oxygen vacancies. The calculated adsorption energy at the vacancies is 120 kJ/mol larger than that oil the five-fold-coordinated Ti4+ sites located in the rows on the TiO2 surface. The vacancy is "healed" by 4TBP, and the related gap state is strongly reduced through charge transfer into empty pi* orbitals on the pyridine ring. This leads to a change in surface band bending by 0.2 eV toward lower binding energies. The band bending does not change with further 4TBP deposition when saturating the surface to monolayer coverage, where the TiO2 surface is effectively protected against further adsorption by the dense 4TBP layer.

Organic semiconductors usually demonstrate crystal structure dependent electronic properties, and through precise control of film structure, the performance of novel organic electronic devices can be greatly improved. Understanding the crystal structure dependent charge-transfer mechanism thus becomes critical. In this work, we have prepared amorphous titanyl phthalocyanine films by vacuum molecular beam evaporation and have further crystallized them through vacuum annealing. In the crystalline phase, an excited electron is rapidly transferred into neighboring molecules; while in the amorphous phase, it is mainly localized and recombines with the core hole as revealed by resonant photoemission spectroscopy (RPES). The fast electron transfer time is determined to be around 16 fs in the crystalline film, which is in good agreement with the charge-transfer hopping time estimated from the best device performance reported. The crystallized film shows more p-type characteristics than the amorphous with all the energy levels shifting toward the vacuum level. However, the greatly improved charge transfer is assigned to the molecular orbital coupling rather than this shift. From density functional theory and RPES, we specify the contribution of two differently coordinated nitrogen atoms (N2c and N3c) to the experimental results and illustrate that the N3c related orbital has experienced a dramatic change, which is keenly related to the improved charge transfer.

The d-orbital contribution from the transition metal centers of phthalocyanine brings difficulties to understand the role of the organic ligands and their molecular frontier orbitals when it adsorbs on oxide surfaces. Here we use zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc)/TiO2(110) as a model system where the zinc d-orbitals are located deep below the organic orbitals leaving room for a detailed study of the interaction between the organic ligand and the substrate. A charge depletion from the highest occupied molecular orbital is observed, and a consequent shift of N1s and C1s to higher binding energy in photoelectron spectroscopy (PES). A detailed comparison of peak shifts in PES and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy illustrates a slightly uneven charge distribution within the molecular plane and an inhomogeneous charge transfer screening between the center and periphery of the organic ligand: faster in the periphery and slower at the center, which is different from other metal phthalocyanine, e. g., FePc/TiO2. Our results indicate that the metal center can substantially influence the electronic properties of the organic ligand at the interface by introducing an additional charge transfer channel to the inner molecular part.

The fast development of new organic sensitizers leads to the need for a better understanding of the complexity and significance of their adsorption processes on TiO2 surfaces. We have investigated a prototype of the triphenylamine-cyanoacrylic acid (donor-acceptor) on rutile TiO2 (110) surface with special attention on the monolayer region. This molecule belongs to the type of dye, some of which so far has delivered the record efficiency of 10%-10.3% for pure organic sensitizers [W. Zeng, Y. Cao, Y. Bai, Y. Wang, Y. Shi, M. Zhang, F. Wang, C. Pan, and P. Wang, Chem. Mater. 22, 1915 (2010)]. The molecular configuration of this dye on the TiO2 surface was found to vary with coverage and adopt gradually an upright geometry, as determined from near edge x-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy. Due to the molecular interaction within the increasingly dense packed layer, the molecular electronic structure changes systematically: all energy levels shift to higher binding energies, as shown by photoelectron spectroscopy. Furthermore, the investigation of charge delocalization within the molecule was carried out by means of resonant photoelectron spectroscopy. A fast delocalization (similar to 1.8 fs) occurs at the donor part while a competing process between delocalization and localization takes place at the acceptor part. This depicts the "push-pull" concept in donor-acceptor molecular system in time scale. (C) 2010 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3509389]

The structures of wheat gluten-based materials are greatly influenced by plasticizer content, moisture content, and external mechanical loading. In this study, the effects of moisture on the structure of wheat gluten (WG) plasticized by glycerol were investigated by using in situ small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), mechanical tensile testing, and thermal analyses. The materials were processed with additives of ammonium hydroxide/salicylic acid or urea and conditioned at 0, 50, and 100% relative humidity (RH). In general, water showed similar effects on the WG structure and mechanical properties regardless of the type of additive. It was observed that the known hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure in WG was present mainly under moist conditions and swelled with an increase in water content. The absorbed water molecules hydrated the protein chains at 50% RH and further led to the formation of a separate water/glycerol phase at 100% RH. An interesting feature was observed by in situ SAXS during tensile deformation; both the HCP structure and other protein aggregates packed more densely in both the tensile and transverse directions. It is interpreted as follows: "randomly oriented" chains were drawn out and stretched in the tensile direction, which squeezes the self-assembled structures together, similar to "tightening a knot".

The progress of organic electronics demands an increased participation of nanotechnology, and it has already been shown that the presence of metallic nanoparticles and/or nanostructured thin films can enhance the device performance. Nevertheless, to gain control over the device final performance, it is crucial to achieve a profound understanding of the nanostructure development and assembly. We investigate the growth kinetics of silver (Ag) on a tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminum (Alq3) thin film via sputter deposition. The increase of the average electron density of the Ag nanostructured film is observed to follow a sigmoidal shape development as a function of the deposited Ag thickness, as a consequence of dominant island-mediated growth. The nanoclustered film is percolated at around a thickness of 5.0 +/- 0.1 nm. At this film thickness the effective film density is about 50%. Moreover, our simulation results indicate that the shape of the nanoclusters changes from truncated spheres to cylinders upon surpassing the percolation threshold.

Photoinduced molecular rearrangements are important in daily events essential for life such as visual perception and photo-protection of light harvesting complexes in plants. In this study we demonstrate that similar photoarrangements appear in an analogous technological application where the device performance is controlled by chromophores in sensitized anatase TiO2, one of the main components for light-harvesting in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC). STM reveals that illumination leads to distortions of organic dyes containing conjugated backbones and of cis-bis(isothiocyanate)-bis-(2,2'-bipyridyl-4,4'-dicarboxylate)ruthenium(II)-bis(tetrabutylammonium), known as N719. The dyes were adsorbed in a closed-packed mode on an anatase(101) single crystal surface and imaged in the dark and under white light illumination in an ultra-high vacuum (UHV). STM images of N719 clearly suggest rearrangements caused by rotation of the dye. Conversely, organic dyes rearrange by photoisomerization depending on the number of double bonds, their position in the molecular structure and on the ligand modifications.

We report experimental results concerning the STM imaging of cis-bis (isothiocyanate)-bis-(2,2'-bipyridyl-4,4'dicarboxylate)ruthenium(II)bis( tetrabutylammonium) dye (known as N719) adsorbed on a single crystal of anatase TiO2(100). The cleaning pretreatment, by sputtering and annealing, of TiO2(100) yields a reproducible (1 x n) surface reconstruction. Previous to dye deposition, TiO2 was covered with one monolayer of 4-tert-butylpyridine (4-TBP) in ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) in order to protect the surface against air contamination. N719 was subsequently deposited by dipping the crystal into the dye solution. 4-TBP was removed partially in the solution and totally by heating the sample to around 285-300 degrees C in UHV. The images of the deposited 4-TBP on TiO2(100) revealed a complete surface coverage showing three modes of adsorption on TiO2. The relatively uncomplicated desorption of 4-TBP enables the accommodation and chemisorption of most N719 molecules directly onto the TiO2 surface. The STM imaging of N719 was affected, in a reversible way, by illumination, because the quality of the image changed after a few hours in the dark or under illumination conditions. The results presented herein are discussed in terms of changes in molecular configurations and in open circuit potentials.

Photoelectron spectroscopy has been used to study room temperature adsorption of sulfur dioxide on clean and water exposed (0001) surfaces of zinc and zinc oxide. Water has no significant effect either on clean or on SO2 exposed Zn(0001) at the low water pressures used (p < 10(-7) mbar). In the Case of the zinc-terminated ZnO(0001) surface, however, water adsorbs dissociatively and OH groups are shown to have a considerable effect on SO2 surface reactions. A strong oxidation reaction occurs between Zn(0001) and SO2 giving various sulfur containing species. On ZnO(0001), SO2 interacts mainly with oxygen sites giving SO3 or SO4 species. It is shown that the ZnO(0001) sample preparation procedure can have large effects on surface chemical and physical properties. Samples cleaned by four different preparation procedures are investigated, namely sputtering only and sputtering followed by annealing at 450 degrees C, 530 degrees C and 600-650 degrees C. Annealing at 600 degrees C leads to a transition from a partly OH-terminated surface to a triangularly structured surface free from OH groups. Adsorption of SO2 on the latter surface leads to a decreased surface conductivity, which hampers photoemission measurements. Water is shown to block SO2 adsorption sites on both 450 degrees C and 530 degrees C annealed samples. On the latter sample. SO2 reduction has been observed to a small extent on the clean surface and to a larger extent when the surface is prehydroxylated. Here, we speculate that water, similar to hydrogen, generates surface zinc clusters on ZnO(0001). Zinc clusters could enable charge transfer to the antibonding LUMO of the SO2 molecule and subsequent dissociation.