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  • 1.
    Arekrans, Johan
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Ritzén, Sofia
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Circular Economy Transitions: The Maturity of Incumbents2021Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    A circular economy (CE) transition poses new challenges and opportunities for industrial incumbents. When implementing CE, the existing processes, routines, and behaviors are questioned. As such, practitioners must consider the required changes related directly to CE and contextual factors in managing the transition. For this purpose, this study conceptualizes a maturity model, highlighting critical elements to consider to facilitate the transition. The model builds on both state-of-the-art literature in CE and empirical findings from three large industrial firms.

    The proposed model consists of the CE practices:

    • (1) design of product-service systems,
    • (2) processes and logistics in manufacturing and supply,
    • (3) circular business model innovation,
    • (4) circular innovation in the ecosystem,

    and the management practices:

    • (1) strategic sustainability integration and
    • (2) management controls.

    The model is intended to help practitioners define a CE roadmap to facilitate the transition towards a more circular business.

  • 2.
    Arekrans, Johan
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Ritzén, Sofia
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Science, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey, N.L., México, 64849.
    The role of radical innovation in circular strategy deployment2022In: Business Strategy and the Environment, ISSN 0964-4733, E-ISSN 1099-0836Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Circular economy (CE) is gaining interest among industrial firms in light of sustainability concerns, and several incumbent firms are integrating it into their strategy. In this study, we scrutinize learnings from three large established industrial firms with a clear CE agenda and that are front-runners in CE strategy deployment. We analyze exploitation and exploration approaches to CE and problematize how these approaches relate to radical innovation, which we argue is critical for achieving CE. Semi-structured interviews (n = 30) were used to collect data. We found several issues referring to

    • (1) challenges and approaches to normative management,
    • (2) how the innovation ecosystem is engaged,
    • (3) how goals and metrics relate to CE, and
    • (4) resources and coordination regarding the CE initiative.

    Overall, current exploitative approaches are favored over explorative, mirroring an undesired imbalance between the two. We suggest several ways to counteract this. For example,

    • (1) addressing existing norms so that they align with the ambitions in CE,
    • (2) actively managing collaboration in the innovation ecosystem, including radically new setups of different actors, and
    • (3) that managers need to carefully consider when and how to use goals and measurements in a circular strategy deployment, to foster both radical and incremental innovation.
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  • 3.
    Arekrans, Johan
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Ritzén, Sofia
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Sopjani, Liridona
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Analysis of Innovation Management Issues in Barriers to Circular Economy2019Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The current linear system of extract-produce-consume-dispose poses considerable challenges for achieving sustainability goals and will eventually lead to the depletion of non-renewable natural resources. Circular Economy (CE) is promoted as a possible sustainable way forward. The suggested transition questions society at large and the business-as-usual of existing firms in particular.

    Barriers to CE implementation have become a growing stream of literature across several sectors and relating to different levels of society. However, this emerging stream of research and how it handles issues of management appears not to be helpful to managers and organizations. This study is, therefore, a systematic review of the current state-of art of circular economy barriers where we scrutinize issues related to management. Attention is brought to matters concerning innovation in management, in particular, business model innovation and innovation ecosystems. 

    Our findings suggest that these topics are indeed indicated as important in the CE literature, yet in very diverse ways depending on the studied case. Implications for future studies within CE are drawn, with suggested point of departure in innovation management topics.

  • 4.
    Arekrans, Johan
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Sopjani, Liridona
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development. Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Science, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey, N.L., México, 64849.
    Ritzén, Sofia
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Barriers to access-based consumption in the circular transition: A systematic review2022In: Resources, Conservation and Recycling, ISSN 0921-3449, E-ISSN 1879-0658, Vol. 184, article id 106364Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Barriers to access-based consumption (ABC) have been extensively studied in different strands of literature. However, cumulative knowledge is not organized to date, and a comprehensive overview of barriers identified by empirical studies in diverse strands is lacking. Such a picture is essential for laying the ground for further change-oriented research and actual changes in practice. This article reports on the results of a systematic review on barriers to transitioning from ownership- to access-based consumption. The review focuses on the literature strands product-service systems, circular economy, sharing economy, and collaborative consumption. Through open and axial coding of 289 barriers reported in 45 empirical studies, we found 17 themes of barriers concerning consumers, business, and society. The analysis of the barriers reveals four significant insights important for the research and practitioner community:

    1. the overall experience of ABC and trust mechanisms need to be better understood;
    2. organizational aspects in traditional business need a system change;
    3. regulation plays a fundamental role in making ABC work for business, society, and sustainability; and
    4. sharing risks and experimentation for new learnings are necessary.

    These four major insights suggest that consumers need business and government to offer enabling conditions for ABC – spanning from raising awareness and understanding to improving user experience. Furthermore, businesses need governments to create the necessary structures to support ABC offerings – from decreasing risks to increasing incentives. How and which mechanisms can further facilitate circular behaviors is a salient topic for future investigations.

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    arekrans-et-al-2022-ABC-barriers
  • 5.
    Corsini, Filippo
    et al.
    stituto di Management, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, 56127 Pisa, Italy.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Meinherz, Franziska
    Laboratory for Human-Environment Relations in Urban Systems, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne EPFL, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
    Appio, Francesco Paolo
    Research Center, Léonard de Vinci Pôle Universitaire, 92916 Paris La Défense, France.
    Mora, Luca
    The Business School, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH14 1DJ, UK.
    The Advent of Practice Theories in Research on Sustainable Consumption: Past, Current and Future Directions of the Field2019In: Sustainability, ISSN 2071-1050, Vol. 11, no 2Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The application of practice theories in the domain of sustainability research in consumer studies is increasingly advocated based on the premise that this allows to analyse consumption as a social phenomenon. Consequently, the applications of social practice theories to this field are expanding geometrically and to date, little retrospective work on this evolution has been made. We conduct a bibliometric analysis of applications of practice theories in the domain of sustainability research in consumer studies. Our results show a temporal succession of research trends: ‘consumer identity’ dominated the field between 2009 and 2012, ‘business and governance’ between 2012 and 2014, ‘sustainable consumption and production’ between 2013 and 2014, ‘urban living and policy’ between 2014 and 2015 and ‘household energy’ from 2015 until the present. We see a high potential of future applications of practice theories in the fields of the sharing and circular economy, as well as in research on smart cities. We provide new insights into the evolution and future trends of applications of social practice theory to domains that are relevant for research on sustainability and consumer studies

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  • 6.
    Cotrim, Joao Miguel
    et al.
    BRU IUL, ISCTE IUL, P-1649026 Lisbon, Portugal..
    Nunes, Francisco
    BRU IUL, ISCTE IUL, P-1649026 Lisbon, Portugal..
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Making Sense of the Sharing Economy: A Category Formation Approach2020In: Sustainability, E-ISSN 2071-1050, Vol. 12, no 24, article id 10648Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The sharing economy (SE) has drawn significant attention from several society stakeholders in the last five years. While business actors are interested in financial opportunities to meet consumer needs, new business models, academia and governmental organisations are concerned with potential unintended effects on society and the environment. Despite its notable global growth, there is still a lack of more solid ground in understanding its origins and respective mechanisms through which it has been evolving as a category. This research addresses the problematics of the origins and ascendency of the SE by examining the process by which it is arising as a new category, searching for conceptual clarification, and pinpointing the legitimacy granted by stakeholders. Our guiding research questions are: how the SE was formed and evolved as a category, and as a category, is the SE legitimate? Additionally, we attempt to identify the nature of the SE as a category. Making a historical analysis of the expression SE and its equivalents, this paper deepens the discussion about the SE's nature by providing evidence that it has predominantly been formed by emergence processes, comprising social movement, similarity clustering, and truce components, which render the SE a particular case of category formation and allow communication, entrepreneurship, regulation, and research about what it is. Moreover, the findings reveal a generalised legitimacy granted to the SE by a vast number of stakeholders, although still lacking the consolidation of socio-political legitimation. The SE's nature seems to fall into a metaphorical approach, notably, the notion of radial categories.

  • 7.
    de Kwant, Colin
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Production Engineering.
    Rahi, Fazle
    University of Gävle.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    The role of product design in circular business models: An analysis of challenges and opportunities for electric vehicles and white goods2021In: Sustainable Production and Consumption, ISSN 2352-5509Article in journal (Refereed)
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  • 8.
    de Miguel Ramos, Carlos
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.). Univ Politecn Madrid UPM, ETS Ingenieros Ind, Calle Jose Gutierrez Abascal 2, Madrid 28006, Spain..
    Laurenti, Rafael
    Univ Politecn Madrid UPM, ETS Ingenieros Ind, Calle Jose Gutierrez Abascal 2, Madrid 28006, Spain..
    Synergies and Trade-offs among Sustainable Development Goals: The Case of Spain2020In: Sustainability, E-ISSN 2071-1050, Vol. 12, no 24, article id 10506Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The United Nations plans have marked global sustainable development for more than two decades. Most of the developed and developing countries have adopted these plans to achieve the Agenda 2030, currently formed by the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The analysis of the interactions between the SDGs is a growing area in research and of interest for governments. However, studies on how positive correlations can improve deteriorated goals are scarce for countries to date. This study aims at filling this gap by finding and quantifying the synergies and trade-offs among the SDGs of Spain. During the years 2000-2019, almost 80% of the SDG targets had significant interactions, either positive (synergy) or negative (trade-off). SDG 4 (quality education), SDG 5 (gender Equality) and SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) contained the largest number of positive interactions, more than 60% in all of them. SDG 3 (good health and wellbeing) was strongly linked with indicators from SDG 4 (quality education) and also SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation). Furthermore, indicators from SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) shared a high correlation with the ones from SGD 12 (responsible consumption and production) and SDG 15 (life on land). SDG 1 (no poverty), 2 (zero hunger), 6 (clean water and sanitation), 8 (decent work and economic growth) and 11 (sustainable cities and communities) had the slowest evolution during the years 2000-2019, showing contractions in some instances. We developed a regression model to assess the influence that selected targets have had on a less evolved target (target 8.6-proportion of youth not in education, employment or training). We managed to clarify high influence from target 1.3 (unemployment compensations), target 8.4 (domestic material consumption) and target 10.5 (non-performing loans) on the dependent variable. Identifying numerical dependencies between the SDGs may help nations to develop a roadmap where targets work as cogwheel towards achieving the Agenda 2030.

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  • 9.
    Hansmann, Ralph
    et al.
    ETH Zurich - Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development. EPFL Ecole Polytechnique f?ed?erale de Lausanne.
    Tarik, Mehdi
    EPFL Ecole Polytechnique f?ed?erale de Lausanne.
    Binder, Claudia
    EPFL Ecole Polytechnique f?ed?erale de Lausanne.
    Determinants of pro-environmental behavior: A comparison of university students and staff from diverse faculties at a Swiss University2020In: Journal of Cleaner Production, ISSN 0959-6526, E-ISSN 1879-1786, Vol. 268Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In the context of an initiative to become a carbon neutral campus, an online survey (N = 1864) of students, scientists, and administrative and technical staff of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) was conducted to measure pro-environmental behaviors and potentially influential factors. Female gender, age, and position (from bachelor's student, master's student, doctoral student, postdoc/senior scientist to professor) showed a significant positive correlation with positive behaviors as measured by a pro-environmental behavior scale developed for this study. Excluded from the academic position ranking were the members of technical and administrative staff, who displayed the highest level of pro-environmental behavior. Furthermore, the level of pro-environmental behavior was generally higher among members of strongly environmentally-oriented university subsections as compared to other sections. Based on previous research and theories on environmental behavior, such as the theory of planned behavior, a predictive model including psychological, structural, and demographic variables was developed and accounted for 44% of the variance of pro-environmental behavior scores. Among psychological variables, the strongest positive influence was observed for green self-identity. Willingness to sacrifice, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and perceived effects were also significantly positively related to positive behavior. Future behavioral decision-making models should consider these variables accordingly. The position of the participants was significantly positively correlated with green self-identity, suggesting positive education and socialization effects, but negatively correlated with perceived behavioral control, pointing to practical constraints coincident with professional seniority.

  • 10.
    He, Lei
    et al.
    Uppsala University.
    Sopjani, Liridona
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    User participation dilemmas in the circular economy: An empirical study of Scandinavia's largest peer-to-peer product sharing platform2021In: Sustainable Production and Consumption, ISSN 2352-5509Article in journal (Refereed)
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  • 11.
    Hysa, Eglantina
    et al.
    Epoka Univ, Dept Econ, Tirana 1032, Albania..
    Kruja, Alba
    Epoka Univ, Dept Business Adm, Tirana 1032, Albania..
    Rehman, Naqeeb Ur
    Epoka Univ, Dept Econ, Tirana 1032, Albania..
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Machine Design (Div.).
    Circular Economy Innovation and Environmental Sustainability Impact on Economic Growth: An Integrated Model for Sustainable Development2020In: Sustainability, E-ISSN 2071-1050, Vol. 12, no 12, article id 4831Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This study examines the link between selected indicators of a circular economy, including essential components of environmental and economic growth. Developed economies are continuously innovating to promote growth and giving governmental support to the producers to move from linear economies to circular ones. Hence, waste materials in industrial systems are recycled or re-used, improving the efficiency of using finite resources with the no-waste approach. The aim of this paper is the following: (1) to identify the main components of a circular economy, which are also supportive of sustainability and development; (2) to check the impact of these variables in the economic growth of European Union countries; (3) to find out if the three components of sustainable development adopted to circular economy (CE) indicators (environmental-social-economic) are significant to economic growth. We used a fixed effect panel data analysis to identify the circular economy's impact on the economic growth of European countries. Additionally, to support the results of the regression analysis, we employed a second method-generalized methods of moments-computing the Arellano-Bond dynamic panel data estimation method. The model included five independent variables, such as environmental tax rate, a recycling rate of waste, private investment and jobs in a circular economy, patents related to recycling, and trade of recyclable raw materials. The identification of each variable was made based on a deep search through literature. The results of both econometric models showed a strong and positive correlation between a circular economy to economic growth, highlighting the crucial role of sustainability, innovation, and investment in no-waste initiatives to promote wealth.

  • 12.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Applications of Systems Thinking within the Sustainability Domain: Product Design, Product Systems and Stakeholder Perspectives2013Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Many of the sustainability challenges our society currently face have arisen as unanticipated side effects of our own modern developments. This thesis investigates if unintended consequences and perspectives are fully addressed by traditional methods for providing decision-making support within the sustainability domain. For that purpose, Systems Thinking is utilised in three cases: in the first, Systems Thinking is used to analyse sustainability issues relating to the current product design paradigm. In the second case, Systems Thinking is applied to two product systems – household washing machines and conventional passenger vehicles. The third case discusses different stakeholder perspectives in environmental decision-making and proposes a way to combine the ESA tools LCA, LCC and CBA in order to consider the different stakeholder perspectives. Results of the first case point out that the practices within the current design paradigm are focused on innovations and improvements in material and energy efficiency. These practices have led to the following unintended consequences: consumption rebound effects, increased waste, pollution, negative externalities, economic inequalities and other environmental and social negative impacts. These unintended consequences are represented in a Causal Loop Diagram (CLD). The diagram graphically illustrates how these unintended consequences influence one another and interact by means of cause-effect linkages and reinforcing feedback loops. A novel conceptual framework named Sustainability-Driven Systems-Oriented Design is proposed to work within broader system boundaries in order to address possible negative side effects that micro-level gains could have on macro-level losses. In the case of the two product systems, a CLD for household washing machines and conventional passenger vehicles is developed. The CLDs represent how selected variables interact by means of cause-effect associations to affect environmental impacts of the products. The CLD technique appears to be a useful way to connect quantitative assessment (from Life Cycle Assessment) with qualitative analysis (from Systems Thinking). In the third case it is argued that stakeholders tend to adopt different system boundaries and make assumptions according to their perspective when they use ESA tools in environmental decision-making. A way to combine ESA tools is suggested to facilitate the observation of the environmental decision from different viewpoints. It concludes, to some extent, that traditional methods for providing decision-making support can handle certain parameters that may result in unintended consequences. Systems Thinking may assist in the process of performing qualitative analyses of what is important to consider in order to strengthen the robustness of, and improve on the recommended actions from, quantitative detailed analyses.

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    Cover essay Rafael Laurenti - Applications of Systems Thinking within the Sustainability Domain: Product Design, Product Systems and Stakeholder Perspectives
  • 13.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    The Karma of Products: Exploring the Causality of Environmental Pressure with Causal Loop Diagram and Environmental Footprint2016Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Environmental pressures from consumer products and mechanisms of predetermination were examined in this thesis using causal loop diagram (CLD) and life cycle assessment (LCA) footprinting to respectively illustrate and provide some indicators about these mechanisms. Theoretical arguments and their practical implications were subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis, using secondary and primary data. A study integrating theories from various research fields indicated that combining product-service system offerings and environmental policy instruments can be a salient aspect of the system change required for decoupling economic growth from consumption and environmental impacts. In a related study, modes of system behaviour identified were related to some pervasive sustainability challenges to the design of electronic products. This showed that because of consumption and investment dynamics, directing consumers to buy more expensive products in order to restrict their availability of money and avoid increased consumption will not necessarily decrease the total negative burden of consumption. In a study examining product systems, those of washing machines and passenger cars were modelled to identify variables causing environmental impacts through feedback loops, but left outside the scope of LCA studies. These variables can be considered in LCAs through scenario and sensitivity analysis. The carbon, water and energy footprint of leather processing technologies was measured in a study on 12 tanneries in seven countries, for which collection of primary data (even with narrow systems boundaries) proved to be very challenging. Moreover, there were wide variations in the primary data from different tanneries, demonstrating that secondary data should be used with caution in LCA of leather products. A study examining pre-consumer waste developed a footprint metric capable of improving knowledge and awareness among producers and consumers about the total waste generated in the course of producing products. The metric was tested on 10 generic consumer goods and showed that quantities, types and sources of waste generation can differ quite radically between product groups. This revealed a need for standardised ways to convey the environmental and scale of significance of waste types and for an international standard procedure for quantification and communication of product waste footprint. Finally, a planning framework was developed to facilitate inclusion of unintended environmental consequences when devising improvement actions. The results as a whole illustrate the quality and relevance of CLD; the problems with using secondary data in LCA studies; difficulties in acquiring primary data; a need for improved waste declaration in LCA and a standardised procedure for calculation and communication of the waste footprint of products; and systems change opportunities for product engineers, designers and policy makers.

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  • 14.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Barrios Acuña, Fernando Manuel
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Exploring antecedents of behavioural intention and preferences in online peer-to-peer resource sharing: a Swedish university setting2020In: Sustainable Production and Consumption, ISSN 2352-5509, Vol. 21, p. 47-56Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Resource-optimization platforms appear as a valid option to more sustainable modes of consumption. The success of these platforms mostly depends on the capability to comprehend the potential users’ motives for engagement. We developed and tested a conceptual model based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to investigate the relative significance of consumer motives for and against using a peer-to-peer (P2P) sharing platform. Qualitative interviews of an elicitation study (n=7) followed a quantitative survey (n=325) with potential users. The size of the demand for accessing specific products and services and the type of transaction mode preferred were also investigated. Attitude towards using a P2P sharing platform is the strongest predictor of behavioural intention among the TPB constructs. Ecological sustainability, sense of belonging, trust in other users, and familiarity are the most critical factors determining the attitude towards using the potential platform; process risk concerns were identified as the main hinder. There were more providers than takers to all likely items enquired, and accommodation and car-sharing had the most significant asymmetric ratios remarkably. Services in general and study materials were the items with the highest potential demand and supply. The preferred mode of exchange for the platform is a free system which includes donation and second-hand sales, and transfer of points or money. This study contributes to a better understanding of consumer motivations and desires to engage in sharing resources for sustainability transformations.

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    Accepted version
  • 15.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Wennersten, Ronald
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Radical systems, eco-innovation and the transition towards sustainability: industrial product design and cultural change2011Conference paper (Other academic)
  • 16.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Lazarevic, David
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Poulikidou, Sofia
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Urban Planning and Environment, Environmental Strategies.
    Montrucchio, Valeria
    Bistagnino, Luigi
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Causal loop diagrams to identify potential sources of environmental impacts outside the scope of LCA studies: case studies on washing machines and road vehiclesManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
  • 17.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Lazarevic, David
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Poulikidou, Sofia
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Environmental Strategies Research (fms).
    Montrucchio, Valeria
    Polytechnic of Turin.
    Bistagnino, Luigi
    Polytechnic of Turin.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Group Model-Building to identify potential sources of environmental impacts outside the scope of LCA studies2014In: Journal of Cleaner Production, ISSN 0959-6526, E-ISSN 1879-1786, Vol. 72, p. 96-109Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Specific methodologies that consider a more comprehensive/diverse set of parameters must be explored by the LCA community. This study utilises the Group Model-Building (GMB) method to identify, and Causal Loop Diagram (CLD) technique to make explicit, variables which are not typically considered in LCA studies, but may have significant influence upon environmental impacts through cause-effect links and feedback loops in product systems. A literature review on LCAs concerning household washing machines and conventional passenger cars product systems is performed to investigate what are the commonly used functional unit, life cycle stages and system boundaries. Two parallel GMB sessions were organised to elicit relevant variables and relations in the product systems and build in a first version of CLDs. Individual interviews with the participants were undertaken to refine and validate the system models. Final versions of the system models were built. GMB and CLD can serve as a basis for (i) delimitating appropriated system boundaries for LCA and (ii) identifying variables/areas to be included in sensitivity and scenario analysis. Sensitivity and scenario analysis examine the influence that those variables/areas have on the environmental impacts of the product and describe both different contexts and profiles of users. GMB and CLD have the potential to bridge the divide between quantitative and qualitative variables, for more robust understanding of the causes and mechanisms of environmental impacts and improving conclusions and recommendations in LCA.

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    Author's Post-print
  • 18.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Lazarevic, David
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Poulikidou, Sofia
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Urban Planning and Environment, Environmental Strategies.
    Montrucchio, Valeria
    Polytechnic of Turin, Architectural and Industrial Design Department.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Bistagnino, Luigi
    Polytechnic of Turin, Architectural and Industrial Design Department.
    Wennersten, Ronald
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Using causal maps to identify potential sources of environmental impact outside the scope of LCA studies: preliminary findings from case studies on washing machines and road vehicles2012In: Proceedings of the 18th Annual International Sustainable Development Research Conference, University of Hull, Hull, UK, 24 – 26 June 2012, Hull, UK, 2012Conference paper (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Much of the environmental impacts of which a product will potentially have during its life cycle  are  determined  during  the  design  phase  by  choices  such  as  type  of  materials  and manufacturing  processes.  The  Life  Cycle  Assessment  (LCA)  method  is  commonly  used  to assess  the  potential  environmental  impacts  and  identify  hot-spots  for  improvements  of  a product system. However, other important variables exist outside the product system that can also  influence  environmental  impacts.  The  aim  of  this  study  is  to  utilise  causal  maps  to identify variables which may not typically be identified and considered in LCA studies but may have significant influence upon environmental impacts through cause-effect chains. To illustrate the utility of causal maps, household washing machines and conventional passenger cars are chosen as case studies. Preliminary findings indicate that causal mapping can be used to  identify  which  are  the  relevant  variables  and  describe  how  they  potentially  interact  in  a system perspective. This knowledge might allow for more robust decision support.

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    Using causal maps to identify potential sources of environmental impact outside the scope of LCA studies: preliminary findings from case studies on washing machines and road vehicles
  • 19.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Liljenström, Carolina
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Chatzisideris, Marios
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Guhr, Adrian
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Diverse stakeholder perspectives of selected environmental systems analysis tools in environmental decision-making: the Swedish case of producing lignin powder for concrete productionArticle in journal (Other academic)
  • 20.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Martin, Michael
    IVL.
    Stenmarck, Åsa
    IVL.
    Developing Adequate Communication of Waste Footprints of Products for a Circular Economy: A Stakeholder Consultation2018In: Resources, E-ISSN 2079-9276, Vol. 7, no 4, article id 78Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Relatively few consumers are conscious of the waste generated in the course of producing the goods that they consume, although most are aware of the amount of waste they dispose of. This article reports on a small-scale survey (N = 28) among stakeholders aimed at developing adequate communication of preconsumer waste footprints of consumer goods in the context of the circular economy. Life cycle assessment (LCA) practitioners and consumers assessed five methodological details of an approach for calculating and communicating a product waste footprint (PWF). Most of the respondents expressed that the guidelines described in the proposed PWF methodology are good enough for the purposes of differentiating waste and byproducts, and defining which material flow shall be accounted for. Some LCA practitioners declared that the proposed streamlined method may not be adequate for conveying the environmental significance of waste types. The respondents also expressed that the PWF concept would be primarily useful and/or needed for consumers and government, and in the contexts of improving environmental awareness of consumers, environmental policy making, visualizing waste flows in a circular economy, and improving resource efficiency in industry, and less useful/needed in a business-to-business context. The PWF has been successfully used by diverse stakeholder groups in Sweden mostly to promote sustainable production and consumption across society. A notable example is the ‘invisible waste’ (#invisiblewaste) campaign of the Swedish Waste Management Association (Avfall Sverige). The concerns of the LCA experts have therefore not held true. The symbolic power and parsimony of the PWF concept appears to be effective in sensitizing consumers towards waste issues so that circular economy strategies beyond recycling are possible to be fully realized.

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  • 21.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Moberg, Åsa
    IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute.
    Stenmarck, Åsa
    IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute.
    Calculating the pre-consumer waste footprint: a screening study of 10 selected productsManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Knowledge aboutthe total waste generated by the production of consumer goods canhelpraise awareness among policy-makers, producers and consumers of thebenefits of closing loops in a future circular economy and avoiding unnecessary production and production steps and associated generation of large amounts of waste.In strict life cycle assessment (LCA) practice, information on waste outputs fromintermediate industrial processes of material and energy transformation is only translatedinto and declared aspotential environmental impacts, whichare oftennot even shown in the final results. In this study, a procedure to extract available intermediate data and perform a systematic pre-consumer waste footprint analysiswas developed. The pre-consumer waste footprint concept was tested to analyse 10 generic products, whichprovided some interesting results for the different product categories and identifieda number of challenges that need to be resolvedin development of the waste footprint concept. These challenges include standardiseddata declaration on waste in LCA,with a separationintowaste categories illustratingthe implicit environmental and scale of significance of waste types and quantities(e.g. hazardous waste,inertwaste, waste for recycling/incineration)and establishment ofa common definitionof waste throughoutsectors and nations.

  • 22.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
    Moberg, Åsa
    IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
    Stenmarck, Åsa
    IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
    Calculating the pre-consumer waste footprint: A screening study of 10 selected products2017In: Waste Management & Research, ISSN 0734-242X, E-ISSN 1096-3669, Vol. 35, no 1, p. 65-78Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Knowledge about the total waste generated by the production of consumer goods can help raise awareness among policy-makers, producers and consumers of the benefits of closing loops in a future circular economy, avoiding unnecessary production and production steps and associated generation of large amounts of waste. In strict life cycle assessment practice, information on waste outputs from intermediate industrial processes of material and energy transformation is translated into and declared as potential environmental impacts, which are often not reported in the final results. In this study, a procedure to extract available intermediate data and perform a systematic pre-consumer waste footprint analysis was developed. The pre-consumer waste footprint concept was tested to analyse 10 generic products, which provided some novel and interesting results for the different product categories and identified a number of challenges that need to be resolved in development of the waste footprint concept. These challenges include standardised data declaration on waste in life cycle assessment, with a separation into waste categories illustrating the implicit environmental and scale of significance of waste types and quantities (e.g. hazardous waste, inert waste, waste for recycling/incineration) and establishment of a common definition of waste throughout sectors and nations.

  • 23.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development. KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Redwood, Michael
    Puig, Rita
    Frostell, Bjorn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Measuring the Environmental Footprint of Leather Processing Technologies2017In: Journal of Industrial Ecology, ISSN 1088-1980, E-ISSN 1530-9290, Vol. 21, no 5, p. 1180-1187Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The selection of materials and manufacturing processes often determines most of the environmental impact that a product will have during its life cycle. In directing consumption toward products with the least impact on the environment, measuring and comparing material alternatives with site-specific data is a fundamental prerequisite. Within the apparel and footwear industry, some famous brands have recently been basing their advertising on the claim that vegetable-tanned leather is more environmentally friendly than chromiumtanned leather. However, there is a lack of scientific research assessing and comparing vegetable-and chromium-tanned leather in a wider context than the toxicity of chromium. To fill this gap, this study measured and compared the carbon, water, and energy footprint of vegetable and chromium leather processing technology and intermediate processing stages in 12 selected tanneries in seven different countries worldwide. Each tannery proved to be very individual, and therefore attempting to perform this type of analysis without simply producing meaningless generalities is a challenge for companies, researchers, and regulators. The variability in results demonstrates that secondary data for the tanning phase should be utilized with caution in a decision-making context. The use of primary data would be advisable for life cycle assessment studies of leather goods. No significant differences were found in the footprint of vegetable and chromium leather processes, but these are only indicative findings and need confirmation in further studies. An important area needing investigation is then how a fair comparison can be made between renewable natural materials and nonrenewable materials used in both leather-processing technologies.

  • 24.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Redwood, Mike
    University of Northampton.
    Puig, Rita
    UPC Polytechnic University of Catalonia.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Measuring the environmental footprint of leather processing technologiesManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    The selection of materials and manufacturing processes determines most of the environmental impact that a product will have during its life cycle. In directing consumption towards products with the least impact on the environment, measuring and comparing material alternatives with site-specific data is a fundamental prerequisite. Within the apparel and footwear industry, some famous brands have recently been basing their advertising on the claim that vegetable-tanned leather is more environmentally friendlythan chromium-tanned leather. However, there is a lack of scientific research assessing and comparing vegetable-and chromium-tanned leather in a wider context than the toxicity of chromium. To fill this gap, this study measured and compared the carbon, water and energy footprint of vegetable and chromium leather processing technology and intermediate processing stages in 12 selected tanneries in seven different countries world-wide. Each tannery proved to be very individual and therefore attempting to perform this type of analysis without simply producing meaningless generalities is a challenge for companies, researchers and regulators. The variability in results demonstrates that secondary data for the tanning phase should be utilizedwith caution in a decision-making context. The use of primary data would be advisable for life cycle assessment(LCA) studies of leather goods. No significant differences were found in the footprint of vegetable and chromium leather processes, but these are only indicative findings and need confirmation in further studies. An important area needing investigation is then how a fair comparison can be made between renewable natural materials and non-renewable materials used in both leather processing technologies.

  • 25.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development. HERUS Laboratory for Human Environment Relations in Urban Systems, EPFL Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    The International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics (IIIEE), Lund University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden.
    Cotrim, Joao
    ISCTE-IUL Business School, University of Lisbon, 1649-004 Lisbon, Portugal.
    Toni, Martina
    Department of Business Studies, University of Roma Tre, 00154 Roma, Italy.
    Sinha, Rajib
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Characterizing the Sharing Economy State of the Research: a Systematic Map2019In: Sustainability, E-ISSN 2071-1050, Vol. 11, no 20, article id 5729Article, review/survey (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The sharing economy is an emerging niche for innovation capable of disrupting established socio-technical and economic regimes. Because of this potential to cause radical changes in a wide array of domains, research in multiple disciplines addressing various aspects entailing this phenomenon is proliferating. In this emerging body of literature, the understanding and framing of the sharing economy are often different. Without knowledge about the current state of the research related to the sharing economy, delineating research trends, gaps, and needs for directing effectively primary research are not possible. This study aimed to synthesize the state and distribution of existing publications related to the sharing economy in multiple disciplines. We used the systematic mapping technique to scope, identify, and classify the publications at a fine level of granularity. We reviewed 589 journal articles (published from 1978 to 2017), and 454 met the selection criteria. The journal articles reviewed were published in 284 different journals. Intriguingly, 15 journals published five to 13 publications each and 221 journals had a single article about the topic. Journals belonging to the subject areas “business, management and accounting” (42.1%) and “social sciences” (35.2%) published more than 70% of the reviewed publications. Accommodation (19.8%) and car and ridesharing (17.2%) were the two most prominent sectors; 50.2% of the publications addressed C2C transactions (10.6% B2C, 24.4% more than one type); 62.3% were about accessing resources, and 5.1% concerned transfer of ownership (i.e., second-hand or donation); and 19.2% covered access and transfer of ownership simultaneously. While empirical studies were the majority (53.1%, when comparing with conceptual ones), qualitative approaches were most common (51.5% against 24.9% quantitative and 17.4% mixed methods). Literature review (22.9%), survey (13.2%), case study (7.3%) and interview (7%) were the most frequently used methods. User behavior (26.4%), business models and organizational aspects (22.7%), institution and governance system (18.7%), conceptualization matters (17%), and sustainability evaluation (15.3%) are research clusters identified from a grounded approach. The link between user behavior and net environmental impacts of sharing options was the largest gap found in the research needing attention from a sustainability perspective. Accordingly, multidisciplinary investigations quantifying behavioral root causes, magnitude, and likelihood of environmental rebound effects using real-world data are strongly encouraged.

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  • 26.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Sevaldson, Birger
    AHO The Oslo School of Architecture and Design.
    Wennersten, Ronald
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Towards a framework to work within broader systems boundaries in the process of product design2012Conference paper (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Most of the environmental impacts of which a product will potentially have during its life cycle are determined during the design phase by choices such as type of materials and manufacturing processes. These definitions, in addition, strongly influence the rate of material or energy input per unit of the service offered by the product. Consequently, on the one hand, potential achievements in lowering energy or materials per-unit of service may be translated into lower consumer costs, encouraging increasing consumption. On the other hand, the way products are designed and offered can have large impact in resources use reduction and also influence user behaviour towards more sustainable practices. We believe that by working within broader systems boundaries, undesirable feedback loops arising in this large system could be addressed. This paper describes a novel conceptual framework named Sustainability Driven Systems-Oriented Design to identify the effects of which micro-level gains (e.g. increased material and energy efficiency) have on macro-level loss (e.g. over consumption). Moreover, a first version of an inference diagram of the industrial system is presented. The diagram graphically illustrates how chosen variables influence one another and interacts by means of feedback loops. The aim of using the conceptual framework and the inference diagram in the design process is to shift the traditional linear cause-effect thinking to feedback-loop thinking.

  • 27.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development. EPFL Swiss Fed Inst Technol Lausanne, ENAC Sch Architecture Civil & Environm Engn, HERUS Lab Human Environm Relat Urban Syst, GR C1 455,Batiment GR,Stn 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.;IVL Swedish Environm Res Inst, Valhallavagen 81, S-11427 Stockholm, Sweden..
    Singh, Jagdeep
    Lund Univ, IIIEE, Tegnersplatsen 4, S-22100 Lund, Sweden..
    Frostell, Björn
    Ecoloop AB, S-11646 Stockholm, Sweden..
    Sinha, Rajib
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Binder, Claudia R.
    EPFL Swiss Fed Inst Technol Lausanne, ENAC Sch Architecture Civil & Environm Engn, HERUS Lab Human Environm Relat Urban Syst, GR C1 455,Batiment GR,Stn 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland..
    The Socio-Economic Embeddedness of the Circular Economy: An Integrative Framework2018In: Sustainability, E-ISSN 2071-1050, Vol. 10, no 7, article id 2129Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Global economies have been characterised by a large dependency of material inflows from natural stocks, an exponential growth of material stock-in-use in the built environment, and the extensive disposal of waste material outflows to anthropogenic sinks. In this context, the concept of the circular economy has emerged, promising to circulate the stock-in-use of materials and transforming output waste material flows back into useful resources while promoting job and value creation. These promises have drawn the attention and interest of policymakers and industry, and gained popularity across society. Despite its apparent emergent legitimacy and diffusion, a few essential adjustments still need to be addressed so that circular economy initiatives can actually deliver on their promises without leading to negative unintended effects. First, a complete entanglement with the existing formal economy is fundamentally needed; this implies valuing the preservation of natural stocks and pricing material input flows adequately. Secondly, a recognition of its socio-economic embeddedness is essentially necessary. The decision-making of societal actors affects material configuration, which in turn affects societal actors; this important feedback loop needs to be explicitly taken into account in circular economy initiatives. The aim of this short communication paper is to explore these pervasive challenges in a broad context of sustainable physical resource management. An integrative framework for recognising the socio-economic embeddedness of the circular economy in practice and the role of the formal economic system in realising its ambitions is proposed.

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  • 28.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Sevaldson, Birger
    AHO The Oslo School of Architecture and Design.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Industrial Ecology.
    Moving from incremental improvementsin efficiency to Systems-Oriented Design: A Systems Approach to Product DesignArticle in journal (Other academic)
  • 29.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Sweden.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Sinha, Rajib
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Potting, Josepha
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Environmental Strategies Research (fms).
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Unintended environmental consequences of improvement actions: A qualitative analysis of systems' structure and behavior2015In: Systems research and behavioral science, ISSN 1092-7026, E-ISSN 1099-1743Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    We qualitatively analysed how and why environmental improvement actions often lead to unintended environmental consequences. Different theories are integrated to delineate the underlying system structure causing this system behavior. Causal loop diagram technique is utilized to explore and visualize: how incremental improvements in material and energy efficiency can unintendedly cause consumption to increase; how this consumption rebound effect is linked to generation of waste and pollution; and how this can give rise to social and negative externalities, economic inequalities and other broad unintended consequences in our society. Consumption and incremental innovation are found to be the highest leverage points and reinforcing factors driving unintended environmental consequences in this complex system. The paper in addition explores two potential modes of behaviour dissimilar to those of unintended environmental consequences. These emerging modes of behaviour are product-service systems and environmental policy instruments. Their combination forms a prominent transition pathway from a production-consumption-dispose economy to a so-called circular economy.

  • 30.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Sweden.
    Sinha, Rajib
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Some pervasive challenges to sustainability by design of electronic products: a conceptual discussion2015In: Journal of Cleaner Production, ISSN 0959-6526, E-ISSN 1879-1786, Vol. 108, Part A, p. 281-288Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Sustainability should encompass responsibility for unintended environmental consequences of modern developments. This study examined some pervasive challenges to sustainability by design of electronic products, namely: (i) product and consumption redundancies; (i) embodied environmental and social impacts occurring distant in time and space from the point of consumption; and (iii) production and consumption dynamics. This analysis identified essential developments in certain areas that can assist design practice in preventing unintended environmental consequences. These were: (1) complementing life cycle assessment studies with analyses of unintended environmental consequences; and (2) exploiting the vital role of product design in fostering a circular economy. Indicators that provide information about (a) the increasing spatial and decreasing temporal separation of production, consumption and waste management, (b) constraints in raw materials supply and (c) marginal changes in money and time spent should be available to product designers and consumers. Furthermore, information technology, namely computer-aided design (CAD) tools, should be refined to assist product designers in designing for effective circularity and end-of-waste and limiting hibernation of resources in the use phase.

  • 31.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Sinha, Rajib
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Towards Addressing Unintended Environmental Consequences: A Planning Framework2015In: Sustainable Development, ISSN 0968-0802, E-ISSN 1099-1719, Vol. 24, no 1, p. 1-17Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Efforts to decouple environmental impacts and resource consumption have been confounded by interactions and feedback between technical-economic, environmental and social aspects not considered prior to implementing improvement actions. This paper presents a planning framework that connects material flows and the socio-economic drivers that result in changes in these flows, in order to reduce conflicts between localized gains and global losses. The framework emphasizes the need for (i) having different settings of system boundaries (broader and narrower), (ii) explicitly accounting for causal relationships and feedback loops and (iii) identifying responsibilities between stakeholders (e.g. producers, consumers, collectors, recyclers, policy makers). Application of the framework is exemplified using the case of the global mobile phone product system. 'Product design and development' and 'Retailers and users as part of a collection system' were identified as central intervention points for implementing improvement strategies that included designing for longer life, designing for recycling and improving collection, designing for limiting phone hibernation time and internalizing external costs.

  • 32. Lavers, Alexandra
    et al.
    Kalmykova, Yuliya
    Rosado, Leonardo
    Oliveira, Felipe
    Laurenti, Rafael
    Selecting representative products for quantifying environmental impacts of consumption in urban areas2017In: Journal of Cleaner Production, ISSN 0959-6526, E-ISSN 1879-1786, Vol. 162, p. 34-44Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Populations are becoming more urban than rural, creating concentrated areas with high consumption of products. Understanding and influencing the environmental impact of consumption within cities becomes therefore increasingly important. Although there have been several studies evaluating the environmental impact of consumption at the global, national, and regional scale, there are few methods currently available to estimate impact at the urban level. There is therefore a need for a systematic approach to select appropriate, region-specific representative products. This study combines material flow analysis with life cycle assessment to select representative products that can be used as proxies to assess the environmental impact of urban areas using life cycle impact factors. The selection was based on the following criteria: the top consumed products within a product category, consistent products with respect to time and geography, and product types with known high environmental impact. The representative products were identified for three Swedish cities: Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmo, using sixteen years of annual urban-level material flow analysis data (1996–2011). A total of 71 products across 44 categories, were identified as representative of the 10,000 product types consumed in the urban areas analyzed. The method described in this study can be used by practitioners to identify representative products in any urban area with material flow data and allows for a more comprehensive and tailored analysis that what has been previously available.

  • 33.
    Pagani, Anna
    et al.
    EPFL Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Binder, Claudia R.
    EPFL Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne.
    Sustainability Assessment of the Housing System: Exploring the Interplay between the Material and Social Systems2020In: Sustainability Assessments of Urban Systems / [ed] Claudia R. Binder, Romano Wyss, Emanuele Massaro, Cambridge University Press, 2020Chapter in book (Refereed)
  • 34.
    Ritzén, Sofia
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Aagaard, Annabeth
    Aarhus University, Dept. Business Development & Technology.
    Arekrans, Johan
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Analyzing co-creation in business models as going circular2019Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The business potentials of businesses and business models going circular are vast as identified by Nasr (2011). Despite the increase of publications on the topic of circular economy (CE) and circular business models (CBM), there is still a lack of research on the effect on sustainability orientation of the organization (Parida & Vincent, 2019). Also, many firms reveal a lack of integration of sustainability issues in their business strategy and business models, typically hampering a transition to CE (Ritzén and Ölundh Sandström, 2017).

    According to Urbinati, Chiaroni and Chiesa (2017) CBMs can be explored based on the degree of adoption of circularity along two major dimensions:

    1. the customer value proposition & interface, i.e. the implementation of the circularity concept in proposing value to customers;
    2. the value network, i.e. the ways through which interacting with suppliers and reorganizing the own internal activities.

    The analysis of this study is focused on describing the new business models that these organizations have defined for going circular and specifically scrutinizing the actions (or non-actions) of co-creation that occurs in their value network. T

    he selected case organizations are four large mature OEMs, B2C and B2B, and one small C2C service provider. The paper contributes empirically and theoretically with exploration and empirical illustrations of organizations fully in action of innovating their CBMs and identifies the key challenges in integrating CE and business, when innovation is a matter for the companies’ value networks and not only for the individual company.

  • 35.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Sinha, Rajib
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Progress and challenges to the global waste management system2014In: Waste Management & Research, ISSN 0734-242X, E-ISSN 1096-3669, Vol. 32, no 9, p. 800-812Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Rapid economic growth, urbanization and increasing population have caused (materially intensive) resource consumption to increase, and consequently the release of large amounts of waste to the environment. From a global perspective, current waste and resource management lacks a holistic approach covering the whole chain of product design, raw material extraction, production, consumption, recycling and waste management. In this article, progress and different sustainability challenges facing the global waste management system are presented and discussed. The study leads to the conclusion that the current, rather isolated efforts, in different systems for waste management, waste reduction and resource management are indeed not sufficient in a long term sustainability perspective. In the future, to manage resources and wastes sustainably, waste management requires a more systems-oriented approach that addresses the root causes for the problems. A specific issue to address is the development of improved feedback information (statistics) on how waste generation is linked to consumption.

  • 36.
    Sinha, Rajib
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Malmström, Maria E.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Identifying ways of closing the metal flow loop in the global mobile phone product system: A system dynamics modeling approach2016In: Resources, Conservation and Recycling, ISSN 0921-3449, E-ISSN 1879-0658, p. 65-76Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In the past few decades, e-waste has emerged as one of the fastest growing and increasingly complex waste flows world-wide. Within e-waste, the life cycle of the mobile phone product system is particularly important because of: (1) the increasing quantities of mobile phones in this waste flow; and (2) the sustainability challenges associated with the emerging economies of reuse, refurbishment, and export of used mobile phones. This study examined the possibilities of closing the material flow loop in the global mobile phone product system (GMPPS) while addressing the broad sustainability challenges linked to recovery of materials. This was done using an adapted system dynamics modeling approach to investigate the dominant paths and drivers for closing the metal flow loop through the concept of eco-cycle. Two indicators were chosen to define the closed loop system: loop leakage and loop efficiency. Sensitivity analysis of selected parameters was used to identify potential drivers for closing the metal flow loop. The modeling work indicated leverage for management strategies aimed at closing the loop in: (i) collection systems for used phones, (ii) mobile phone use time, and (ii) informal recycling in developing countries. By analyzing the dominant parameters, an eco-cycle scenario that could promote a closed loop system by decreasing pressures on virgin materials was formulated. Improved policy support and product service systems could synchronize growth between upstream producers and end-of-life organizations and help achieve circular production and consumption in the GMPPS. 

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  • 37.
    Sinha, Rajib
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Malmström, Maria
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering.
    Experimenting on closing the metal flow loop in the global mobile phone product system: a system dynamics modeling approachManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), well known as e-waste, is one of the fastest growing waste flows worldwide with increasing complexity in production through distribution to end of life (EoL). In this waste stream, a high number of mobile phones makes e-waste more compelling to examine the whole life of the specific product. In addition, having an interest in e-wastes for informal recycling in developing countries (DC), industrialized countries (IC) export e-wastes to developing countries. The emerging economies of reuse, refurbish and export of used mobile phones not only make the EoL complex, but also make the systems more challenging to sustainability. Since industrial ecology (IE) advocates resource efficiency with closed loop systems, we adapted a system dynamics modeling approach to investigate the dominance paths and driving forces for closing the metal flow loop through the concept of industrial symbiosis and eco-cycle modeling. This study finds higher efficiency for closing the loop in collection systems of used phones, mobile phone use time, and informal recycling in developing countries. By analyzing the dominant parameters, an eco-cycle model is proposed which could enhance a closed loop system by decreasing pressures on non-renewable resources. Improved policy supports accompanying consumer and corporate awareness with responsibility could create a circular consumption in the global mobile phone product system. 

  • 38.
    Sopjani, Liridona
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Centres, Integrated Transport Research Lab, ITRL. KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Arekrans, Johan
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering. KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Ritzén, Sofia
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Unlocking the Linear Lock-In: Mapping Research on Barriers to Transition2020In: Sustainability, E-ISSN 2071-1050, Vol. 12, no 3, article id 1034Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The linear paradigm of take-make-dispose in production and consumption patterns impedes the achievement of global sustainability goals. Strategies for maintaining the added value of resources and circulating them have been discussed as promising for the future. There are, however, many barriers to be addressed to overcome the linear lock-in. The large body of literature on these barriers is notably diverse in terms of theory, methods, sectors, products, and settings. This demonstrates the complexity of delineating implications to the practice and research needs. Without a common framework to analyse barriers, knowledge does not accumulate, hindering the development and implementation of solutions and policies that could effectively address the barriers. In this article, we developed a systematic map of studies on barriers related to the circular transition. The purpose was twofold: (1) to classify published research on barriers; (2) to provide a searchable database for future more rigorous systematic literature reviews. We reviewed the abstract of 527 publications and classified the study according to a developed scheme. This classification scheme includes the research paradigms (circular economy, sharing economy, collaborative consumption and product-service systems), circular strategy (recycling, remanufacturing, component/product reuse, and access-based consumption), country, sector/industry/product, and research approach and method. The resulting research map is open source, serving also as an adaptive digital database for researchers alike to perform systematic reviews and contribute further to its collaborative development

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  • 39.
    Sopjani, Liridona
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering. KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Arekrans, Johan
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Ritzén, Sofia
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    A systematic map for classifying studies on barriers related to circular economy, sharing economy, collaborative consumption, and product-service systems2019In: Proceedings of the 19th European Roundtable for Sustainable Consumption and Production (ERSCP 2019) Institute for Sustainability Science and Technology, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, 15-18 October 2019, 2019Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The linear paradigm of take-make-dispose in production and consumption threatens global sustainability goals. Strategies for looping resources (e.g. as proposed in circular economy) have been discussed as a promising future, but not without a number of challenges or barriers in the transition phase. Consequently, barriers for realizing such strategies is a prominent topic in an increasing number of empirical studies. Following this trend, several of meta studies have compiled the barriers found in the literature, trying to summarize and generalize them; while others have cited or assumed the existence of a specific barrier and proposed a solution to overcome it. However, understanding of what type of barrier related to what type of circular strategy (e.g. reuse, remanufacture, recycle) is limited because scholars of emerging scientific areas use different concepts and language to frame their findings. Moreover, the fact that contextual factors may play an important role concerning the presence or absence of a specific barrier has been overlooked. Without a common framework to organize the findings, isolated knowledge does not cumulate. In this study, we developed a systematic map for classifying studies on barriers related to the emerging fields of circular economy, sharing economy, collaborative consumption and product-service systems. The purpose is to, first, classify and consolidate research knowledge in order to analyze the progress in these four research paradigms, and second, to provide a searchable database for future more rigorous systematic literature reviews. Five hundred and twenty-seven publications published between 2003 and January 2019 available in Scopus were reviewed and classified in a fine level of granularity, including whether barriers are the focus of the publication, how the barriers were identified by the publication (e.g. empirically, assumed, indirectly mentioned), whether the publication discuss or test a solution, the method used (e.g. case study, survey, interviews) and data source (primary, secondary). The systematic map helped to identify relevant contextual factors for one or a set of barriers in single empirical study, such as the circular strategy, geographical context, (i.e. country), level of analysis (e.g. business model, governance, product, user), and sector (e.g. accommodation, clothing, transport, electronics). Further, the map is an open source adaptive framework serving also as a digital database for researchers alike for extracting knowledge and contributing further to its development, through input and collaboration.

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  • 40.
    Stucki, Matthias
    et al.
    Zurich University of Applied Sciences.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    How life cycle–based science and practice support the transition towards a sustainable economy2021In: The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, ISSN 0948-3349, E-ISSN 1614-7502, Vol. 26, no 5, p. 1062-1069Article in journal (Refereed)
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  • 41.
    Wang, Qian
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Sweden.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    A novel hybrid methodology to evaluate sustainable retrofitting inexisting Swedish residential buildings2015In: Sustainable cities and society, ISSN 2210-6707, Vol. 16, no C, p. 24-38Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Energy and environmental issues are increasingly important in existing building service and energy systems around the world. Despite great efforts to implement retrofit techniques in Sweden, no stringent evaluation of the benefits of these techniques or their systematic design has been completed. Traditional evaluations have not taken into account the embodied energy and greenhouse gases emissions of different retrofit options. This omission leads to underestimation of the potential environmental benefits of modern retrofit techniques. In this study a novel hybrid modeling approach to quantify the sustainability of retrofit options is developed to fill these knowledge gaps. The compatibility of environmental and energy saving modeling of various energy-saving techniques for future transition of Swedish residential building stock is analyzed. Consolis Retro and the life cycle assessment (LCA) techniques are employed and further coupled to simulate retrofit options. The model integrates both energy demand (net operational energy), primary energy (operational energy from energy mix to buildings) into evaluation criteria. Embodied energy (energy required to produce materials of retrofitting options) and embodied greenhouse gas emissions (upstream CO<inf>2</inf> equivalent) are introduced as new measures in the evaluation criteria. The results showed that low-temperature heating retrofitting was the most effective option from both a primary and embodied energy perspective in the studied building types. Combining circulation pump renovations could further contribute to the efficiency of low-temperature heating for energy-demand savings. High operational energy-saving measures may not always lead to larger reduction in both embodied energy and greenhouse gas emissions, particularly for building envelope retrofitting. Neglecting the embodied energy of retrofit options will increase the risk of overrepresenting their energy-saving contributions. The sustainability improvements of retrofitting, particularly large-scale measures, should take into account the embodied energy and greenhouse gas emissions from the material productions.

  • 42.
    Warmington-Lundström, Jon
    et al.
    Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Reviewing circular economy rebound effects: The case of online peer-to-peer boat sharing2020In: Resources, Conservation and Recycling, ISSN 0921-3449, E-ISSN 1879-0658, Vol. 5, article id 100028Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Renting instead of buying new products may be seen as the most efficient strategies of the circular economy. However, changes in the consumption inevitably liberates or binds scarce production or consumption factors such as raw materials, money and time which can potentially limit the potential to save resources. This phenomenon is known as environmental rebound effect and is currently under-researched in the context of resource sharing. This paper reviews the magnitude and tendency of environmental rebound effects of peer-to-peer boat sharing platform using a double-spending model (i.e. for lessors as well lessees). We found that environmental rebound effect was experienced by every lessee surveyed (n = 104) and in one-third of lessors (n = 29). 60 % of lessees experienced a rebound of over 20 %, losing one-fifth of the potential reductions in emissions through subsequent consumption behaviour enabled by the economic savings created by sharing resources. International air travel and increases in personal use of the boat were the biggest contributing factors towards environmental rebound effect. Users that increased consumption in these ways experienced a backfire effect in which their annual emissions actually increased. This backfire was experienced by 29 % of lessees with the worst scenario increasing emissions by a factor of over eight. We found statistically significant differences in the rebound of lessors and lessees. Greater awareness and non-economic mechanisms (such as symbolic rewards, information provision and nudging) tailored for lessors and lessees are needed to help prevent the likelihood of occurrence and the magnitude of environmental rebound effects from sharing resources.

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  • 43. Westin, Alexandra
    et al.
    Kalmykova, Yuliya
    Rosado, Leonardo
    Oliveira, Felipe
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Machine Design (Dept.), Integrated Product Development.
    Rydberg, Tomas
    Combining material flow analysis with life cycle assessment to identify environmental hotspots of urban consumption2019In: Journal of Cleaner Production, ISSN 0959-6526, E-ISSN 1879-1786, Vol. 226, p. 526-539Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Understanding the global environmental impacts of local consumption is an area of growing interest among policymakers and consumers. By knowing what products comprise urban consumption “hotspots,” municipalities and consumers alike could take deliberate actions to target and discourage consumption of high-impact products. In this paper, a new method for identifying environmental hotspots of consumption is presented. The main methodological advances are the following: i) material flow analysis of urban areas and life cycle assessment are combined; ii) a 16-year time-series of urban consumption data is used for selection of the most suitable representative products and for trend analysis; iii) representative products are selected systematically from consumption data of 1000 product types; iv) representative products are scaled up to represent consumption of the product groups; v) hotspots are identified by simultaneously evaluating six environmental impacts - acidification, climate change, eutrophication (marine and freshwater), photochemical ozone formation, and resource use; vi) for the case study, hotspots are connected to the city's profiles. The method was applied to the Swedish cities Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmo and to Sweden in total. Electronics is a hotspot for all the studied areas and all the studied impacts and should be a prioritized product group for action. Fuel is a hotspot shared by all the areas while vehicles is a hotspot in Gothenburg. Meat is a nationwide hotspot, but not for the cities investigated. Gothenburg and Stockholm could collaborate to find effective measures for their common hotspot machinery. Thus, the method can be used to identify hotspots and find which product types could be part of national versus local programs.

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  • 44.
    Zhou, Guanghong
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Singh, Jagdeep
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Wu, Jiechen
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Sinha, Rajib
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Laurenti, Rafael
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Frostell, Björn
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Sustainable development, Environmental science and Engineering, Industrial Ecology.
    Evaluating low-carbon city initiatives from the DPSIR framework perspective2015In: Habitat International, ISSN 0197-3975, E-ISSN 1873-5428, Vol. 50, p. 289-299Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Current low-carbon city initiatives were evaluated using the DPSIR (Drivingforces-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses) causal-effect framework for investigating interactions between environmental issues and human activities. For effective management towards achieving a low-carbon city, integrating the pressure-based, driver-oriented DPSIR approach could help decision makers examine whether greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction approaches deal with the root causes of GHG emissions and work to-wards low-carbon city development goals. The DPSIR framework was used on 36 global cities to analyse the socio-economic dynamics of GHG emissions and their pressures on the environment, the state of the environment, related climate change impacts and responses from society. The results indicated that numerous cities have awareness of low-car bon plans and that most of these plans are pressure-based and driver-oriented. Most city plans recognise energy, transportation and building as the main driving forces for GHG emissions, which cause environmental pressures, and highlight technical responses to reduce GHG emissions pressures from these root causes. Inaddition, most plans recognise institutional and cognitional responses to low-carbon city development, such as: policies and legislation; departmental planning and cooperation; measuring, monitoring and reporting performance; capital invest-ment; community education and outreach; and stakeholder involvement.

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