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  • 1.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Energy and Indoor Environment in New Buildings with Low-Temperature Heating System2013Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    The aim of this thesis was to evaluate new buildings with low-temperature heating systems in terms of energy consumption and thermal comfort, and to pay some attention to energy savings and indoor air quality. To reach this aim, on-site measurements as well as building energy simulations using IDA Indoor Climate and Energy (ICE) 4 were performed. Results show that the investigated buildings with low-temperature heating system could meet the energy requirements of Swedish regulations in BBR (Boverkets byggregler), as well as provide a good level of thermal comfort. Implementing variable air volume ventilation instead of constant flow, i.e. decreasing the ventilation air from 0.35 to 0.10 l·s-1·m-2 during the whole unoccupancy (10 hours), gave up to 23 % energy savings for heating the ventilation air. However, the indoor air quality was not acceptable because VOC (volatile organic compound) concentration was slightly above the acceptable range for one hour after occupants arrive home. So, in order to create acceptable indoor air quality a return back to the normal ventilation requirements was suggested to take place two hours before the home was occupied. This gave 20 % savings for ventilation heating. The results of this study are in line with the European Union 20-20-20 goal to increase the efficiency of buildings by 20 % to the year 2020.

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  • 2.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Low-Temperature Heating and Ventilation for Sustainability in Energy Efficient Buildings2015Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    In 2013, the building sector consumed approximately 39 % of the total final energy use in Sweden. Energy used for heating and hot water was responsible for approximately 60 % of the total energy consumption in the building sector. Therefore, energy-efficient and renewable-based heating and ventilation systems have high potential for energy savings. The potentials studied in this thesis include the combination of a low-temperature heat emitter (supply temperature below 45 °C) with heat pump and/or seasonal thermal energy storage, and variable air volume ventilation system. The main aim of this thesis was to evaluate energy savings and indoor air quality when those energy-efficient and sustainable heating and ventilation systems were implemented in buildings. For this purpose, on-site measurements, lab tests, analytical models, and building energy simulation tool IDA Indoor Climate and Energy 4 were used.

    Annual on-site measurements for five new two-family houses with low- and very-low-temperature heat emitters connected to an exhaust air heat pump showed  that  between  45–51 kWh∙m-2 energy was used  to  produce  and transport supply water for space heating and domestic hot water. Statistical data showed that these values are 39–46 % lower compared to the energy requirement for the same usage  which is, 84 kWh∙m-2)  in  an  average Swedish new single- and two-family house.

    Annual on-site measurements for five new two-family houses with low- and very-low-temperature heat emitters connected to an exhaust air heat pump showed that between 45–51 kWh∙m-2 energy was used to produce and transport supply water for space heating and domestic hot water. Statistical data showed that these values are 39–46 % lower compared to the energy requirement for the same usage (which is, 84 kWh∙m-2) in an average Swedish new single- and two-family house.

    In order to compare the energy performance of very-low- and low-temperature heat emitters with medium-temperature heat emitters under the same condition, lab tests were conducted in a climate chamber facility at Technical University of Denmark (DTU). To cover the heat demand of 20 W·m-2 by active heating, measurements showed that the required supply water temperatures were 45 ºC for the conventional radiator, 33 ºC in ventilation radiator and 30 ºC in floor heating. This 12–15 ºC temperature reduction with ventilation radiator and floor heating resulted in 17–22 % savings in energy consumption compared to a reference case with conventional radiator.

    Reducing the supply temperature to the building’s heating system allows using more renewable and low-quality heat sources. In this thesis, the application of seasonal thermal energy storage in combination with heat pump in a building with very-low-, low-, and medium-temperature heat emitters was investigated. Analytical model showed that using a 250 m3 hot water seasonal storage tank connected to a 50 m2 solar collector and a heat pump resulted in 85–92 % of the total heat demand being covered by solar energy.

    In addition to the heating system, this thesis also looked at ventilation system in terms of implementing variable (low) air volume ventilation instead of a constant (high) flow in new and retrofitted old buildings. The analytical model showed that, for new buildings with high volatile organic compound concentration during initial years of construction, decreasing the ventilation rate to 0.1 L·s-1·m-2 during the entire un-occupancy period (from 8:00–18:00) creates unacceptable indoor air quality when home is occupied at  18:00.  So,  in  order  to  create  acceptable  indoor  air  quality  when  the occupants come home, a return to the normal ventilation requirements was suggested to take place two hours before the home was occupied. This eight- hour ventilation reduction produced savings of 20 % for ventilation heating and 30 % for electricity consumption by ventilation fan.

    In addition, the influence of different ventilation levels on indoor air quality and energy savings was studied experimentally and analytically in a single- family house occupied by two adults and one infant. Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration as an indicator of indoor air quality was considered in order to find  appropriate  ventilation  rates.  Measurements  showed  that,  with  an 0.20 L∙s-1∙m-2  ventilation rate, the CO2   level  was always below 950 ppm, which shows that this level is sufficient for the reference building (CO2 lower than 1000 ppm is acceptable). Calculations showed that low ventilation rates of 0.20 L∙s1∙m-2 caused 43 % savings of the combined energy consumption for  ventilation  fan  and  ventilation  heating  compared  to  the  cases  with 0.35 L∙s-1∙m-2  as a normal ventilation rate recommended by BBR (Swedish Building Regulations).

     

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  • 3.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Bourdakis, Eleftherios
    Ploskic, Adnan
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Experimental study of energy performance in low-temperature hydronic heating systems2015In: Energy and Buildings, ISSN 0378-7788, E-ISSN 1872-6178, Vol. 109, p. 108-114Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Energy consumption, thermal environment and environmental impacts were analytically and experimentally studied for different types of heat emitters. The heat emitters studied were conventional radiator, ventilation radiator, and floor heating with medium-, low-, and very-low-temperature supply, respectively. The ventilation system in the lab room was a mechanical exhaust ventilation system that provided one air change per hour of fresh air through the opening in the external wall with a constant temperature of 5 °C, which is the mean winter temperature in Copenhagen. The parameters studied in the climate chamber were supply and return water temperature from the heat emitters, indoor temperature, and heat emitter surface temperature. Experiments showed that the mean supply water temperature for floor heating was the lowest, i.e. 30 °C, but it was close to the ventilation radiator, i.e. 33 °C. The supply water temperature in all measurements for conventional radiator was significantly higher than ventilation radiator and floor heating; namely, 45 °C. Experimental results indicated that the mean indoor temperature was close to the acceptable level of 22 °C in all cases. For energy calculations, it was assumed that all heat emitters were connected to a ground-source heat pump. Analytical calculations showed that using ventilation radiator and floor heating instead of conventional radiator resulted in a saving of 17% and 22% in heat pump's electricity consumption, respectively. This would reduce the CO2 emission from the building's heating system by 21 % for the floor heating and by 18% for the ventilation radiator compared to the conventional radiator.

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  • 4.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Halilovic, Armin
    KTH, School of Technology and Health (STH), Basic Science and Biomedicine, Basic science.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Low-temperature Heat Emission Combined with Seasonal Thermal Storage and Heat Pump2015In: Solar Energy, ISSN 0038-092X, E-ISSN 1471-1257, Vol. 119, p. 122-133Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    We studied the application of a stratified seasonal hot water storage tank with a heat pump connected to medium-, low- and very-low-temperature space heat emissions for a single-family house in Stockholm, Sweden. Our aim was to investigate the influence of heat emission design temperature on the efficiency and design parameters of seasonal storage in terms of collector area, the ratio of storage volume to collector area (RVA), and the ratio of height to diameter of storage tank. For this purpose, we developed a mathematical model in MATLAB to predict hourly heat demand in the building, heat loss from the storage tank, solar collector heat production, and heat support by heat pump as a backup system when needed. In total, 108 cases were simulated with RVAs that ranged from 2 to 5 (m3 m−2), collector areas of 30, 40, and 50 (m2), height-to-diameter-of-storage-tank ratios of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 (m m1), and various heat emissions with design supply/return temperatures of 35/30 as very-low-, 45/35 as low-, and 55/45 (°C) as medium-temperature heat emission. In order to find the best combination based on heat emission, we considered the efficiency of the system in terms of the heat pump work considering coefficient of performance (COP) of the heat pump and solar fraction. Our results showed that, for all types of heat emission a storage-volume-to-collector area ratio of 5 m3 m2, with a collector area of 50 m2, and a height-to-diameter ratio of 1.0 m m1 were needed in order to provide the maximum efficiency. Results indicated that for very-low-temperature heat emission the heat pump work was less than half of that of the medium-temperature heat emission. This was due to 7% higher solar fraction and 14% higher COP of heat pump connected to very-low-temperature heat emission compared to medium-temperature heat emission.

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  • 5.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    An investigation of energy efficient and sustainable heating systems for buildings: Combining photovoltaics with heat pump2013In: Sustainability in Energy and Buildings: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference in Sustainability in Energy and Buildings (SEB´12), Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, 2013, p. 189-197Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Renewable energy sources contribute considerable amounts of energy when natural phenomena are converted into useful forms of energy. Solar energy, i.e. renewable energy, is converted to electricity by photovoltaic systems (PV). This study was aimed at investigating the possibility of combining PV with Heat Pump (HP) (PV-HP system). HP uses direct electricity to produce heat. In order to increase the sustainability and efficiency of the system, the required electricity for the HP was supposed to be produced by solar energy via PV. For this purpose a newly-built semi-detached building equipped with exhaust air heat pump and low temperature-heating system was chosen in Stockholm, Sweden. The heat pump provides heat for Domestic Hot Water (DHW) consumption and space heating. Since selling the overproduction of PV to the grid is not yet an option in Sweden, the PV should be designed to avoid overproduction. During the summer, the HP uses electricity only to supply DHW. Hence, the PV should be designed to balance the production and consumption during the summer months. In this study two simulation programs were used: IDA Indoor Climate and Energy (ICE) as a building energy simulation tool to calculate the energy consumption of the building, and the simulation program WINSUN to estimate the output of the PV. Simulation showed that a 7.3 m2 PV area with 15 % efficiency produces nearly the whole electricity demand of the HP for DHW during summer time. As a result, the contribution of free solar energy in producing heat through 7.3 m2 fixed PV with 23o tilt is 17 % of the annual heat pump consumption. This energy supports 51 % of the total DHW demand.

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  • 6.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Demand Controlled Ventilation in a Combined Ventilation and Radiator System2013In: Proceedings of International Conference CLIMA 13, 2013Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    With growing concerns for efficient and sustainable energy treatment in buildings there is a need for balanced and intelligent ventilation solutions. This paper presents a strategy for demand controlled ventilation with ventilation radiators, a combined heating and ventilation system. The ventilation rate was decreased from normal requirements (per floor area) of 0.375 l·s-1·m-2 to 0.100 l·s-1·m-2 when the residence building was un-occupied. The energy saving potential due to decreased ventilation and fan power was analyzed by IDA Indoor Climate and Energy 4 (ICE) simulation program. The result showed that 16 % of the original energy consumption for space and ventilation heating could be saved by utilizing ventilation on demand.

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  • 7.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Demand-controlled ventilation in new residential buildings: consequences on indoor air quality and energy savings2015In: Indoor + Built Environment, ISSN 1420-326X, E-ISSN 1423-0070, Vol. 24, no 2Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The consequences on indoor air quality (IAQ) and potential of energy savings when using a variable airvolume (VAV) ventilation system were studied in a newly built Swedish building. Computer simulationswith IDA Indoor Climate and Energy 4 (ICE) and analytical models were used to study the IAQ andenergy savings when switching the ventilation flow from 0.375 ls1m2 to 0.100 ls1m2 duringunoccupancy. To investigate whether decreasing the ventilation rate to 0.1 ls1m2 during unoccupancy,based on Swedish building regulations, BBR, is acceptable and how long the reduction can lastfor an acceptable IAQ, four strategies with different VAV durations were proposed. This study revealedthat decreasing the flow rate to 0.1 ls1m2 for more than 4 h in an unoccupied newly built buildingcreates unacceptable IAQ in terms of volatile organic compounds concentration. Hence, if the durationof unoccupancy in the building is more than 4 h, it is recommended to increase the ventilation rate from0.100 ls1m2 to 0.375 ls1m2 before the home is occupied. The study showed that when the investigatedbuilding was vacant for 10 h during weekdays, increasing the ventilation rate 2 h before occupantsarrive home (low ventilation rate for 8 h) creates acceptable IAQ conditions. In this system, theheating requirements for ventilation air and electricity consumption for the ventilation fan weredecreased by 20% and 30%, respectively.

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  • 8.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Energy Performance Evaluation of New Residential Buildings with a Low-Temperature Heating System: Results from Site Measurements and Building Energy Simulations2012In: Proceedings of The Second International Conference on Building Energy and Environment, 2012Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The purpose of this study was to investigate the national energy requirements of a modern, newly built residential development including four semi-detached houses in Stockholm, Sweden. The apartments were equipped with heat pumps utilising exhaust heat, resulting in a hydronic heating system adapted to low supply temperature. Ventilation radiators as combined ventilation and heating systems were installed in the two upper floors. Efficient preheating of incoming ventilation air in the ventilation radiator was an expected advantage. Under-floor heating with traditional air supply above windows was used on the ground floor. Energy consumption was calculated by IDA ICE 4, a building energy simulation (BES) program. In addition site measurements were made for comparison and validation of simulation results. Total energy consumption was monitored in the indoor temperature controlled buildings during the heating season. Our results so far indicate that total energy requirements in the buildings can be met in a satisfactory manner.

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  • 9.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Energy performance of low temperature heating systems in five new-built swedish dwellings: A case study using simulations and on-site measurements2013In: Building and Environment, ISSN 0360-1323, E-ISSN 1873-684X, Vol. 64, p. 85-93Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In Europe, high energy consumption in built environments has raised the need for developing low energy heating systems both in new building and in retrofitting of existing buildings. This paper aims to contribute by presenting annual results of calculated and measured energy consumption in five new-built semi-detached dwellings in Stockholm, Sweden. All buildings were equipped with similar low temperature heating systems combining under-floor heating and ventilation radiators. Exhaust ventilation heat pumps supported the low temperature heating system. Buildings were modeled using the energy simulation tool IDA Indoor Climate and Energy (ICE) 4, and energy consumption of the heat pumps was measured. Results showed that calculated and measured results were generally in agreement for all five dwellings, and that the buildings not only met energy requirements of the Swedish building regulations but also provided good thermal comfort.

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  • 10.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Haghighat, Fariborz
    Energy-Efficient and Sustainable Heating System for Buildings: Combining seasonal heat storage with heat pumps and low-temperature heating systems2014Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    During gaps between high heating demand in winter and high heating production in summer, the application of seasonal thermal energy storage becomes important. However, heat loss from seasonal thermal energy storage has always been an issue. Therefore, in order to decrease heat loss and increase solar collector efficiency, low-temperature heat storage is recommended. Nevertheless, this temperature is not sufficient throughout the heating season, which means that a heat pump is recommended in order to use this low-grade source to produce a suitable temperature for the heating system. In addition, heat pumps have better efficiency when working with low-temperature heating systems. This study investigated the seasonal thermal storage in combination with heat pump and low-temperature heating systems, with the aim of finding a suitable size for thermal energy storage and collector area. The study showed that 300 m3 of storage volume and 55 m2 of collector area could cover 80 % of the total energy demand using solar energy.

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  • 11.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Haghighat, Fariborz
    Seasonal thermal energy storage with heat pumps and low temperatures in building projects-A comparative review2015In: Renewable & sustainable energy reviews, ISSN 1364-0321, E-ISSN 1879-0690, Vol. 43, p. 1199-1213Article, review/survey (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Application of seasonal thermal energy storage with heat pumps for heating and cooling buildings has received much consideration in recent decades, as it can help to cover gaps between energy availability and demand, e.g. from summer to winter. This has the potential to reduce the large proportion of energy consumed by buildings, especially in colder climate countries. The problem with seasonal storage, however, is heat loss. This can be reduced by low-temperature storage but a heat pump is then recommended to adjust temperatures as needed by buildings in use. The aim of this paper was to compare different seasonal thermal energy storage methods using a heat pump in terms of coefficient of performance (COP) of heat pump and solar fraction, and further, to investigate the relationship between those factors and the size of the system, i.e. collector area and storage volume based on past building projects including residences, offices and schools.

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  • 12.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Energy Technology, Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration. School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
    Huda, N.
    School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
    A comparative review on the application of radiant low-temperature heating and high-temperature cooling for energy, thermal comfort, indoor air quality, design and control2022In: Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, ISSN 2213-1388, E-ISSN 2213-1396, Vol. 49, article id 101661Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Radiant low-temperature heating (LTH) and high-temperature cooling (HTC) has become popular due to their high energy efficiency, thermal comfort, and improving indoor air quality. This system has been investigated in many studies from theory to practical applications. In this review article, LTH/HTC systems based on their results on energy usage, thermal comfort, indoor air quality, design and control are analysed and discussed. Furthermore, the radiant system with all-air systems are compared and the application of a hybrid system in different climate conditions is also presented. The outcome of this study revealed that in many studies radiant LTH/HTC systems can save between 10 and 30% energy and provide better thermal comfort compared to the all-air system. Moreover, combining a radiant system with a small-sized air system has a positive impact on indoor air quality and thermal comfort as required ventilation air is introduced and the latent load is removed. Overall, more studies are needed to monitor long-term performance of the building in use with radiant LTH/HTC to optimize the overall system performance and system design, and to extend its application in different climates and wide ranges of building types.

  • 13.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Energy Technology, Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration.
    Madani Larijani, Hatef
    KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Energy Technology, Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration.
    Energy Performance of Ground-source Heat Pump and Photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) in Retrofitted and New Buildings: Two Case Studies Using Simulation and On-site Measurements2020Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This paper aims to contribute by presenting calculated and measured electricity usage in two single-family case studies during the heating season of 2019-2020 located in Stockholm, Sweden. The electricity usage included consumption by heat pumps’ compressor to cover space heating and domestic hot water, auxiliary energy for fans and pumps, and ventilation system. The first case study was built in 1936 with an oil burner, which was renovated to a ground-source heat pump (GSHP) in 2015, and the second case study was a new building built in 2013 with a GSHP. The application of photovoltaic/thermal (PVT) systems in combination with GSHP was theoretically investigated for both case studies. Buildings were modelled using the energy simulation tool IDA Indoor Climate and Energy (ICE), and the model was validated against the measured electrical energy usage. PVT was designed to balance the maximum heat production with domestic hot water consumption during the summer months. Simulation results revealed that combining GSHP with 5 m2 grid-connected PVT gave 21% and 22% energy savings in case study 1 and case study 2, respectively. Employing a battery storage to store extra electricity production by PVT increased the energy savings to 24 % and 32 % for case study 1 and case study 2, respectively. Moreover, in both cases approximately half of the total annual domestic hot water need was prepared by 5 m2 PVT.

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  • 14.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Myhren, Jonn Are
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Influence of different ventilation levels on indoor air quality and energy savings: A case study of a single-family houseManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
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  • 15.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Myhren, Jonn Are
    Construction Technology, School of Technology and Business Studies, Högskolan Dalarna, Falun, Swede.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Influence of different ventilation levels on indoor air quality and energy savings: A case study of a single-family house2015In: Sustainable cities and society, ISSN 2210-6707, Vol. 19, p. 165-172Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The influence of different ventilation levels on indoor air quality (IAQ) and energy savings were studied experimentally and analytically in a single-family house occupied by two adults and one infant, situated in Borlänge, Sweden. The building studied had an exhaust ventilation system with a range of air flow rate settings. In order to find appropriate ventilation rates regarding CO2, relative humidity (RH) and temperature as indicators of IAQ, four ventilation levels were considered, as follows: (I) A very low ventilation rate of 0.10 L s−1 m−2; (II) A low ventilation rate of 0.20 L s−1 m−2; (III) A normal ventilation rate of 0.35 L s−1 m−2; (IV) A high ventilation rate of 0.70 L s−1 m−2. In all cases, the sensor was positioned in the exhaust duct exiting from habitable spaces. Measurements showed that, for case I, the CO2 concentration reached over 1300 ppm, which was higher than the commonly referenced threshold for ventilation control, i.e. 1000 ppm, showing unacceptable IAQ. In case II, the CO2 level was always below 950 ppm, indicating that 0.20 L s−1 m−2 is a sufficient ventilation rate for the reference building. The case III showed that the ventilation rate of 0.35 L s−1 m−2 caused a maximum CO2 level of 725 ppm; showing the level recommended by Swedish regulations was high with respect to CO2 level. In addition, measurements showed that the RH and temperature were within acceptable ranges in all cases. An energy savings calculation showed that, in case II, the comparative savings of the combined energy requirement for ventilation fan and ventilation heating were 43% compared with case III.

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  • 16.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Myhren, Jonn Are
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Multi-zone Demand-controlled Ventilation in Residential Buildings: An experimental case study2014Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Numerous studies have investigated the application of multi-zone demand-controlled ventilation for office buildings. However, although Swedish regulations allow ventilation rates in residential buildings to be decreased by 70 % during non-occupancy, this system is not very common in the sector. The main focus of the present study was to experimentally investigate the indoor air quality and energy consumption when using multi-zone demand-controlled ventilation in a residential building. The building studied was located in Borlänge, Sweden. This building was recently renovated with better windows with low U values, together with internally-added insulation materials. The building had natural ventilation, which decreased significantly after retrofitting and resulted in poor indoor air quality. Therefore, a controllable mechanical ventilation system was installed. The ventilation rate was controlled according to the demand in each zone of the building by CO2 concentration as an indicator of indoor air quality in habitable spaces and relative humidity and VOC level in the toilet and bathroom. The study showed that multi-zone demand-controlled ventilation significantly reduced the CO2 concentration leading to improvement in indoor air quality. However, building with demand-controlled ventilation consumed more energy than natural ventilation as it increases the ventilation loss by forcing more air into the building. Nevertheless, in the demand-controlled ventilation system, the energy consumption for the ventilation fan and ventilation loss was almost half of the constant high rate ventilation flow.

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  • 17.
    Hesaraki, Arefeh
    et al.
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Ploskic, Adnan
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Holmberg, Sture
    KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Fluid and Climate Technology.
    Integrating Low-temperature Heating Systems into Energy Efficient Buildings2015In: Energy Procedia, ISSN 1876-6102, Vol. 78, p. 3043-3048Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Energy requirements for space heating and domestic hot water supplies in the Swedish building sector are responsible for almost 60 % of the total energy used. To decrease this enormous figure, energy saving measures are required, as well as opportunities to use low-temperature heating systems for increase sustainability. The present paper studies low-temperature heating systems, including heat production units (district heating or heat pumps) and heat emitting units in the room. The aim was to find an answer to the question of whether or not low-temperature heating systems are energy efficient and sustainable compared with conventional heating systems. To answer this question, we considered different efficiency aspects related to energy and exergy. The analysis showed that low-temperature heating systems are more energy efficient and environmentally friendly than conventional heating systems. This was attributed to heat pumps and district heating systems with lower temperature heat emitters using a greater share of renewable resources and less auxiliary fuels. This report discusses the pros and cons of different types of low-temperature heat emitters.

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