We present a pH nanosensor conceived for single intracellular measurements. The sensing architecture consisted of a two-electrode system evaluated in the potentiometric mode. We used solid-contact carbon nanopipette electrodes tailored to produce both the indicator (pH nanosensor) and reference electrodes. The indicator electrode was a membrane-based ion-selective electrode containing a receptor for hydrogen ions that provided a favorable selectivity for intracellular measurements. The analytical features of the pH nanosensor revealed a Nernstian response (slope of -59.5 mV/pH unit) with appropriate repeatability and reproducibility (variation coefficients of <2% for the calibration parameters), a fast response time (<5 s), adequate medium-term drift (0.7 mV h(-)(1)), and a linear range of response including physiological and abnormal cell pH levels (6.0-8.5). In addition, the position and configuration of the reference electrode were investigated in cell-based experiments to provide unbiased pH measurements, in which both the indicator and reference electrodes were located inside the same cell, each of them inside two neighboring cells, or the indicator electrode inside the cell and the reference electrode outside of (but nearby) the studied cell. Finally, the pH nanosensor was applied to two cases: (i) the tracing of the pH gradient from extra-to intracellular media over insertion into a single PC12 cell and (ii) the monitoring of variations in intracellular pH in response to exogenous administration of pharmaceuticals. It is anticipated that the developed pH nanosensor, which is a label-free analytical tool, has high potential to aid in the investigation of pathological states that manifest in cell pH misregulation, with no restriction in the type of targeted cells.
Biogeochemical processes are often confined to very narrow zones in aquatic systems. Therefore, highly resolved in situ measurements are required to study these processes. Potentiometric solid -contact ion selective electrodes (SC-ISEs) are promising tools for such measurements. SCISEs show good performance in analyses under controlled experimental conditions. Very few sensor designs, however, can sustain the challenges of natural water matrices and external environmental conditions during in situ applications. We fabricated ammonium and pH selective SC-ISEs with functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (f-MWCNT) as a solid contact. Their functionality was tested in the laboratory and applied in situ for vertical profiling in a eutrophic lake. Sensors were insensitive to strong redox changes, high sulfide concentrations, and bright daylight conditions during the application in the lake. In addition, sensors are easily fabricated and exhibit short response times (<10 s). The proposed design of SC-ISEs based on f-MWCNTs is quite suitable for high-resolution in situ profiling of ionic species in fresh water lakes.
We present a methodology for the detection of dissolved inorganic phosphorous (DIP) in seawater using an electrochemically driven actuator-sensor system. The motivation for this work stems from the lack of tangible solutions for the in situ monitoring of nutrients in water systems. It does not require the addition of any reagents to the sample and works under mild polarization conditions, with the sample confined to a thin-layer compartment. Subsequent steps include the oxidation of polyaniline to lower the pH, the delivery of molybdate via a molybdenum electrode, and the formation of an electroactive phosphomolybdate complex from DIP species. The phosphomolybdate complex is ultimately detected by either cyclic voltammetry (CV) or square wave voltammetry (SWV). The combined release of protons and molybdate consistently results in a sample pH < 2 as well as a sufficient excess of molybdate, fulfilling the conditions required for the stoichiometric detection of DIP. The current of the voltammetric peak was found to be linearly related to DIP concentrations between 1 and 20 μM for CV and 0.1 and 20 μM for SWV, while also being selective against common silicate interference. The analytical application of the system was demonstrated by the validated characterization of five seawater samples, revealing an acceptable degree of difference compared to chromatography measurements. This work paves the way for the future DIP digitalization in environmental waters by in situ electrochemical probes with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution. It is expected to provide real-time data on anthropogenic nutrient discharges as well as the improved monitoring of seawater restoration actions.
Herein, an isothermal padlock probe-based assay for the simple and portable detection of pathogens coupled with a glucose oxidase (GOx)-based electrochemical readout is reported. Infectious diseases remain a constant threat on a global scale, as in recurring pandemics. Rapid and portable diagnostics hold the promise to tackle the spreading of diseases and decentralising healthcare to point-of-care needs. Ebola, a hypervariable RNA virus causing fatalities of up to 90% for recent outbreaks in Africa, demands immediate attention for bedside diagnostics. The design of the demonstrated assay consists of a rolling circle amplification (RCA) technique, responsible for the generation of nucleic acid amplicons as RCA products (RCPs). The RCPs are generated on magnetic beads (MB) and subsequently, connected via streptavidin-biotin bonds to GOx. The enzymatic catalysis of glucose by the bound GOx allows for an indirect electrochemical measurement of the DNA target. The RCPs generated on the surface of the MB were confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, and among other experimental conditions such as the type of buffer, temperature, concentration of GOx, sampling and measurement time were evaluated for the optimum electrochemical detection. Accordingly, 125 μg mL−1 of GOx with 5 mM glucose using phosphate buffer saline (PBS), monitored for 1 min were selected as the ideal conditions. Finally, we assessed the analytical performance of the biosensing strategy by using clinical samples of Ebola virus from patients. Overall, this work provides a proof-of-concept bioassay for simple and portable molecular diagnostics of emerging pathogens using electrochemical detection, especially in resource-limited settings.
The decentralisation of accurate determination of the ammonium ion (NH4+) is relevant for environmental monitoring (i. e., nitrogen cycle) and certain clinical applications (e. g., kidney and liver diseases). Potentiometric ionophore-based sensors are one alternative for these purposes in terms of versatile implementation, though the potassium ion (K+) is known to be a major source of interference. We herein investigate the use of three different tripodal tris(pyrazolyl) compounds derived from 1,3,5-triethylbenzene as NH4+ ionophores. A complete set of potentiometric experiments together with theoretical simulations reveals suitable analytical performance while demonstrating a suppression of the K+ interference given the formation of an adequate cavity in the ionophore to host NH4+ over K+ in the membrane environment. The results support the use of these electrodes in the analytical detection of NH4+ in a wide range of samples with variable contents.
A heterogeneous pH buffer based on a colloidal emulsion containing ion-exchanger and lipophilic base is described that can be integrated into hydrogels without affecting their ion-exchange properties. Each sphere works on the basis of reversible ion-exchange of hydrogen ions with solution cations, acting as a pH buffer while staying removed from solution in the nonpolar core of the spheres. The ion-exchange mechanism is supported by titration experiments in aqueous emulsion, showing that the nature and concentration of the exchanging solution cations influences the buffer action, with increasing lipophilicity moving the equilibrium to lower pH values. Agarose gels with entrapped pH buffer emulsions and mounted in a transport cell are shown by zero current potentiometry to exhibit negligible permselective properties above an ionic strength of 1 mM, a behavior no different from unmodified agarose, with an observed ion-exchanger concentration of 7 mM in dry agarose. This suggests that such pH buffers do not give rise to substantial ion-exchange properties of the gel material. In a first attempt to control the pH in the vicinity of an electrode surface by this approach, the emulsion was entrapped in an agarose gel in direct contact with a pH electrode, demonstrating the ability to buffer such gel films.
Ion-selective membrane electrodes (ISEs) have become very attractive sensing platforms for environmental water analysis. This review mainly presents recent advances in polymeric-based ISEs relevant to water research and primarily focused on alkali and alkali earth-metal cations, ammonium ions, halide anions and certain oxoanions involved in biogeochemical cycles (e.g. nutrients (NO2 −, NO3 −), carbon (HCO3 −/CO3 2−) and phosphorus (HPO4 2−/H2PO4 −)). Clearly, ISEs have the potential to be the icon of decentralized ion chemical information for water research as in the case of wearable ISE sensors. The modern development of robust ISEs (mainly in all-solid-state format) has allowed an easy implementation either into submersible or non-submersible probes that maintain, to an acceptable degree, the required analytical performance. Remarkable benefits, such as avoidance of sample contamination, sample preservation and determination of perturbations of chemical speciation, are significant to enhancing the fundamental knowledge of ongoing biogeochemical process. A perspective on the current requirements of ISEs in terms of analytical performance and engineering construction is provided initially and is followed by recent contributions listed according to the sampling methodology, including i) on-board/on-site sampling with subsequent coverage of decentralized analysis (on moving or fixed platforms) and ii) in situ monitoring with submersible sensing probes. On the one hand, there is difficulty in making a general statement about ISEs for water research, specifically in terms of whether they are suitable. This lies in the complexity and heterogeneity of the samples. Accordingly, particular scenarios are discussed. On the other hand, it is also evident that further steps are still needed at the fundamental level, including development of receptors, robust membranes and novel alternatives that would enable the sensing of ions at deep-sea. Importantly, there is a plenty of room for improvement and new approaches; and it should be stressed that the recent progress in water research using ISEs has been owing to multidisciplinary efforts. Facing this challenge is very exciting and the development of ISE platforms that enable working in real conditions is quite plausible.
Selective Electrodes solid contact ions based on carbon nanotubes. The invention defines a solid selective electrode contact ions comprising a transducer layer of carbon nanotubes which contacts the sensing layer and conducting element. The invention also defines a method for preparing such ion selective electrode solid contact and the use thereof for the qualitative, quantitative or semiquantitative determination of analytes. Said selective contact electrode solid ion allows detect or quantify highly diverse chemical species in a reliable and reproducible manner with the additional advantages derived from its simplicity and low construction cost.
Cyclic voltammetry (CV) in chloride-based aqueous electrolytes of ferrocene molecule doped thin membranes (similar to 200 nm in thickness) on glassy carbon (GC) substrate electrodes, both plasticized poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) and unplasticized poly(methyl methacrylate)/poly(decyl methacrylate) (PMMA-PDMA) membranes, has shown that the electrochemical oxidation behavior is irreversible due most likely to degradation of ferrocene at the buried interface (GC vertical bar membrane). Furthermore, CV of the ferrocene molecules at GC electrodes in organic solvents employing chloride-based and chloride-free organic electrolytes has demonstrated that the chloride anion is inextricably linked to this irreversible ferrocene oxidation electrochemistry. Accordingly, we have explored the electrochemical oxidation mechanism of ferrocene-based redox molecules in thin film plasticized and unplasticized polymeric membrane electrodes by coupling synchrotron radiation-X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (SR-XPS) and near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) with argon ion sputtering to depth profile the electrochemically oxidized thin membrane systems. With the PVC depth profiling studies, it was not possible to precisely study the influence of chloride on the ferrocene reactivity due to the high atomic ratio of chloride in the PVC membrane; however, the depth profiling results obtained with a chlorine-free polymer (PMMA-PDMA) provided irrefutable evidence for the formation of a chloride-based iron product at the GC| PMMA-PDMA interface. Finally, we have identified conditions that prevent the irreversible conversion of ferrocene by utilizing a high loading of redox active reagent and/or an ionic liquid (IL) membrane plasticizer with high ionicity that suppresses the mass transfer of chloride.
Synchrotron radiation-valence band spectroscopy (SR-VBS) has been utilized in a study of redox molecule valence states implicated in the electron hopping mechanism of ethynylferrocene in unplasticized poly(methyl methacrylate)-poly(decyl methacrylate) [PMMA-PDMA] membranes. In this communication, it is revealed that, at high concentrations of ethynylferrocene, there are observable Fe 3d valence states that are likely linked to electron hopping between ferrocene moieties of neighbouring redox molecules. Furthermore, electrochemically induced stratification of ethynylferrocene in an oxidized PMMA-PDMA membrane produces a gradient of Fe 3d states toward the buried interface at the glassy carbon/PMMA-PDMA membrane enabling electron hopping and electrochemical reactivity of dissolved ethynylferrocene across this buried film.
This paper presents the first direct spectroscopic evidence for double layer or capacitive charging of carbon nanomaterial-based solid contacts in all-solid-state polymeric ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). Here, we used synchrotron radiation-X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (SR-XPS) and SR valence band (VB) spectroscopy in the elucidation of the charging mechanism of the SCs.
Modulation of ion-transfer processes across nanometer-sized voltammetry membranes by ferrocene-based self-assembled monolayer on regular glassy carbon electrode is herein demonstrated. The composition of the membrane is advantageously tuned to promote either cation or anion transfer: the presence of an exchangeable cation results in cation transfer, whereas a lipophilic salt induces anion transfer through the fulfilment of the electroneutrality of the system. When an anodic scan oxidizes ferrocene moieties in the monolayer, these are stabilized by the pairing of lipophilic anions present in the membrane. As a result, either, hydrophilic cations present in the membrane are expelled into the solution or anions enter from the solution generating hence reversible and voltammetric waves for these transfers. The use of a redox active monolayer rather than a conducting polymer film or a redox active compound into the membrane overcomes a number of drawbacks previously manifested by these systems. The confinement of the redox process in a thin film at the immediate vicinity of the membrane allows to avoid the need of elevated number of redox moieties to be sued in the membrane, therefore suppressing its acute leaching and being compatible with the incorporation of both cation and anion ionophores for the first time. In this sense, assisted transfer of lithium and chloride are shown as proof-of-concept. Here, the peak potential of the associated voltammetric waves shifts according to the Nernst equation, in analogy to potentiometric sensors. Analytical detection of lithium and chloride ions in real samples is additionally presented.
The monitoring of ammonium ion concentration has gained the attention of researchers from multiple fields since it is a crucial parameter with respect to environmental and biomedical applications. For example, ammonium is considered to be a quality indicator of natural waters as well as a potential biomarker of an enzymatic byproduct in key physiological reactions. Among the classical analytical methods used for the detection of ammonium ions, potentiometric ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) have attracted special attention in the scientific community because of their advantages such as cost-effectiveness, user-friendly features, and miniaturization ability, which facilitate easy portable measurements. Regarding the analytical performance, the key component of ISEs is the selective receptor, labelled as an ionophore in ISE jargon. Indeed, the preference of an ionophore for ammonium amongst other ions (i.e., selectivity) is a factor that primarily dictates the limit of detection of the electrode when performing measurements in real samples. A careful assessment of the literature for the last 20 years reveals that nonactin is by far the most employed ammonium ionophore to date. Despite the remarkable cross-interference of potassium over the ammonium response of nonactin-based ISEs, analytical applications comprising water quality assessment, clinical tests in biological fluids, and sweat monitoring during sports practice have been successfully researched. Nevertheless, there is evident difficulty in the determination of close-to-micromolar levels of ammonium in real samples with a significant potassium background level (i.e., millimolar concentration). This fact has fostered the search for a large variety of ammonium ionophores over the years, which are critically inspected herein. Overall, we provide an easily readable state of the art accompanied by a comprehensive description of other types of ammonium electrodes, including commercially available units. We conclude that newer breakthroughs are still required in the field to reach the desired analytical applications.
Over the last few years, all-solid-state potentiometric ion-selective sensors have demonstrated a huge potential for environmental water analysis. Beyond the excellent analytical performances exhibited in benchtop conditions for the detection of important targets (e.g. pH, species relevant to the carbon and nitrogen cycles, trace metals), the challenge now lies in bringing those sensors to in situ format and obtaining valuable chemical information directly in the field while minimizing or avoiding the need for sampling. Technically speaking, the instrumentation for potentiometric assessment is extremely simple, low cost and requires minimal space. In addition, the all-solid-state configuration seems ideal to fabricate miniaturized sensors with sufficient analytical performance to detect certain ions in water resources. Herein, we highlight the power of all-solid-state potentiometric sensors applied to environmental water analysis providing a threefold overview: (i) the recent materials used in the fabrication of all-solid-state polymeric membrane electrodes, both the solid contact and ion-selective membrane; (ii) a collection of the main targets explored during the last 5 years; and (iii) examples of the most recent and relevant in situ applications employing submersible equipment. Throughout the review, issues such as ‘What are the real implications of all-solid-state membrane electrodes in the environmental field?’ and ‘To what extent has the effort in developing new sensors over time been well-exploited?’ are addressed. Convincingly, all-solid-state potentiometric sensors are positioning as a unique in situ interface providing real-time data that allow for an understanding of ongoing biogeochemical processes and possible anthropogenic activities implications.
Because traditional laboratory practices in advanced chemistry education are being replaced by inquiry based approaches, we present herein a new laboratory activity based on a small research project that was designed and executed by students. The laboratory project aims at answering a well-defined research question: how far can potentiometric electrodes based on nonselective polymeric membranes be used as universal detectors in ion chromatography (IC)? Hence, the experiments were designed and conducted to explore the analytical performances of potentiometric electrodes based on different commercial membranes that are typically used in electrodialysis. The nonselective behavior shown by the electrodes permits a critical evaluation of their further implementation as a universal detector of anions in regular IC. Thus, the students were able to integrate a nonselective potentiometric sensor to analyze several anions in flow mode, mimicking the signal that is to be obtained using such electrodes as an IC detector. The proposed practice covers different pedagogical purposes: (i) to develop competence toward "thinking like a scientist" through reflective teaching; (ii) to promote argumentation skills and critical decision making; (iii) to improve students' research-planning and experimental-design skills; (iv) to refresh conceptual knowledge about analytical detectors, which typically goes unnoticed in laboratory practices; and (v) to reinforce students' knowledge about the basis of potentiometry. Furthermore, the present document may serve as an easy guide to develop other laboratory practices based on potentiometric sensors.