The global energy system is experiencing a transformation. An analysis of the dynamics of global energy production and consumption indicates that a paradigm shift is occurring toward more reliable and sustainable energy sources with the dominance of natural gas. Even though the reserves-to-production ratio for hydrocarbons is declining, it is natural gas that can ensure the sustainable development of the energy system to meet the growing energy needs of humankind. Natural gas can also significantly reduce the environmental burden. In the medium term, it will be the main source of energy along a gradual transition to renewable energy. Natural gas can serve as a transition fuel within a broader deployment of hybrid energy technologies. Hybridization - the generation of energy using both fossil fuels and renewable energy sources - is one of the most promising areas of energy system development, contributing to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. In our opinion, hybridization based on natural gas is a "bridge to the future" for the world energy system.
The article presents the modern trends in development of global energy sector. It is shown that in ХХ-ХХI centuries the growth rate of energy consumption outpaces the growth rate of the Earth's population, which, in turn, is constantly increasing. The analysis of energy consumption structure dynamics for the period of 1980-2018 shows the leading rates of growth of a share of natural gas and renewable energy in the world energy consumption balance, associated with energy efficiency and huge gas resources, inexhaustible renewable energy resources and low level of environmentally harmful emissions when using these types of energy. The analysis of the tendency of the mineral-raw material base of hydrocarbon raw materials development shows that the growth of oil reserves is provided, basically, by the high-viscosity bituminous oil of the Orinoco river belt in Venezuela and Athabasca province in Canada, and natural gas in four countries Russia, Turkmenistan, Iran and Qatar. The trend of change in the hydrocarbon reserves availability index is estimated; currently it is equal to 53 years and tends to decline further. Based on the analysis of the fossil fuels share used in centralized electricity generation the conclusion was made about low efficiency of thermal energy. It is shown that in the medium and long term the world energy sector will be developed with the use of hybrid energy technologies that will significantly improve the energy supply efficiency and reliability especially in regions with undeveloped energy infrastructure. Substantial redistribution of energy load from thermal energy to energy generation based on hybrid technologies will make it possible to use hydrocarbons not as fuel but as raw materials for innovative products of oil and gas chemistry. Thermal energy based on the combustion of fossil fuels and the use of nuclear energy will dominate in the global energy mix, but its share will gradually decrease. In the medium term, the share of natural gas in the global energy balance will continue to increase with a renewable energy sources growing contribution to the energy supply that will be developed as hybrid technologies.
Analysis of the global energy market development allows to conclude that natural gas is becoming the main energy resource in the structure of world energy consumption in the nearest future. At the same time the statistical data show that there is a significant reduction in the hydrocarbon reserves over hydrocarbon production, and the time is right to concern about the development of renewable energy projects. The authors analyzed the indicators of the availability of the hydrocarbon reserves over hydrocarbon production. Calculations show that the values of the reserves-to-production ratio are estimated as 90 years for organic fuel and as 54 years for hydrocarbon raw materials in 2017. The projects of "hybrid" energy that combine the traditional production of hydrocarbons with the development of renewable energy projects will be the most needed in the medium term. Some proposals on the subject of this article are based on the collaborate research of Gubkin University and Royal Institute of Technology (Stockholm, Sweden). Currently the autonomous combined power installation on renewable energy sources with energy storage system application is very attractive. The analysis shows that the most objects of the Russian oil and gas complex are located in areas that are promising for the practical use of renewable energy such as solar and wind energy. The results of modeling show that the autonomous combined power installation on renewable energy sources with energy storage system application is one of the possible ways to increase the energy efficiency and reliability of remote oil and gas facilities energy supply.
Diversification of gas supply via the liberalization of the gas trade, the discovery of new fossil gas sources, and the increasing use of renewable gases, are favoring pronounced and more frequent fluctuations in gas quality. The knowledge of gas quality is crucial for custody transfer, and safe, efficient and low-emission operation of gas-driven processes. The onsite measurement of gas quality by the operators of gas production facilities, gas grids, gas storage and gas utilization facilities is an emerging requirement. This paper describes several different approaches for determining gas quality by direct, indirect and inferential methods based on the physicochemical properties of gas. Special emphasis is devoted to a discussion on the miniaturization of gas quality sensors and the incorporation of hydrogen detection and measurement into these sensors, due to potential hydrogen admixture to natural gas. In addition, an overview and analysis of the regulatory and normative requirements for gas quality measurements are presented. Furthermore, an overview of gas quality measurement devices and sensors, recent developments as well as challenges and benefits associated with gas quality measurement instrumentation, are provided.
An explicit approach using symplectic time integration in conjunction with traditional finite difference spatial derivatives to solve the wave equation in moving media is presented. A simple operator split of this second order wave equation into two coupled first order equations is performed, allowing these split equations to be solved symplectically. Orders of symplectic time integration ranging from first to fourth along with orders of spatial derivatives ranging from second to sixth are explored. The case of cylindrical acoustic spreading in air under a constant velocity in a 2D square structured domain is considered. The variation of the computed time-of-flight, frequency, and wave length are studied with varying grid resolution and the deviations from the analytical solutions are determined. It was found that symplectic time integration interferes with finite difference spatial derivatives higher than second order causing unexpected results. This is actually beneficial for unstructured finite volume tools like OpenFOAM where second order spatial operators are the state-of-the art. Cylindrical acoustic spreading is simulated on an unstructured 2D triangle mesh showing that symplectic time integration is not limited to the spatial discretization paradigm and overcomes the numerical diffusion arising with the in-built numerical methods which hinder wave propagation.
There is widespread evidence that petroleum originates from biological processes(1-3). Whether hydrocarbons can also be produced from abiogenic precursor molecules under the high-pressure, high-temperature conditions characteristic of the upper mantle remains an open question. It has been proposed that hydrocarbons generated in the upper mantle could be transported through deep faults to shallower regions in the Earth's crust, and contribute to petroleum reserves(4,5). Here we use in situ Raman spectroscopy in laser-heated diamond anvil cells to monitor the chemical reactivity of methane and ethane under upper-mantle conditions. We show that when methane is exposed to pressures higher than 2 GPa, and to temperatures in the range of 1,000-1,500 K, it partially reacts to form saturated hydrocarbons containing 2-4 carbons (ethane, propane and butane) and molecular hydrogen and graphite. Conversely, exposure of ethane to similar conditions results in the production of methane, suggesting that the synthesis of saturated hydrocarbons is reversible. Our results support the suggestion that hydrocarbons heavier than methane can be produced by abiogenic processes in the upper mantle.
What will happen when methane is at a temperature of 1500 K? On the first glance the answer seems to be obvious methane will decompose into hydrogen and one of the forms of carbon. Yes. However is does not do so at very high pressure, when novel reaction pathways become possible. The latest experimental results and theoretical calculations show that methane and heavier hydrocarbons are, remarkably enough, stable under extreme pressures and temperatures. Even more, experiments confirm the possibility of abiogenic synthesis of natural gas at 5.0 GPa and 1500 K. The review summarizes published results of theoretical and experimental investigations of possible pathways under the conditions of pressure and temperature that prevail in the Earth's upper mantle for the formation of (1) particular species of hydrocarbon molecules, and of (2) complex hydrocarbon systems. The results raise fundamental questions on the genesis of hydrocarbons.
This paper presents a correlative method for the real-time measurement of quality characteristics of propanated biomethane for pipeline injection according to the European and Swedish regulations. The target quality properties (superior calorific value and Wobbe index) were predicted by the developed regression model based on the measurement of a selected set of physical properties of the gas samples. The measured physical properties are the thermal conductivity, the carbon dioxide concentration, the speed of sound, and the sound attenuation parameter measured as the ultrasonic signal dampening at 1 MHz. The empirical model of the sound attenuation parameter was developed for selected gases in order to predict a sufficient amount of data points for training the regression model. The developed regression model was tested experimentally and demonstrated good agreement with chromatographic analyses.
World experience shows that important factor in the calculations for natural gas consumption between suppliers and consumers is not only the volume of natural gas, but the quality indicators. With gas market liberalization, gas properties are expected to vary more frequently and strongly (composition, heating value etc.). Quality of natural gas is currently a topical issue, considering the steady increase of gas consumption in the world in recent decades. Existent chromatographs and calorimeters are very accurate in gas quality determination, but general expenditure and maintenance costs are still considerable. Market demands alternative lower cost methods of natural gas quality determination for transparent energy billing and technological process control. Investigation results indicate that heating value (HV) is a nonlinear function of such parameters as sound velocity in gas, N2 and CO 2 concentration. Those parameters show strong correlation with natural gas properties of interest (HV, density, Wobbe index), during analysis conducted on natural gas sample database. For solving nonlinear multivariable approximation task of HV determination, artificial neural networks were used. Proposed approach allowed excluding N2 concentration from input parameters with maintenance of sufficient accuracy of HV determination equal to 3.7% (with consideration of N2 concentration - 2.4%) on sample database. For validating of received results corresponding experimental investigation was conducted with reference analysis of physical and chemical parameters of natural gas samples by gas chromatography and followed superior HV calculation according to ISO 6976:1995. Developed experimental setup consist of measuring chamber with ultrasonic transducer, reflector, pressure, temperature and humidity sensors, ultrasonic inspection equipment for sound velocity measurements and CO2 concentration sensor with relevant instrument. The experimental setup allows measurement of sound velocity at 1MHz frequency and CO2 concentration in natural gas sample along with parameters control (temperature, humidity, pressure). The HV calculation algorithm was based on specially designed and trained artificial neural networks. Experimental investigation of proposed approach was conducted on 40 real samples of locally distributed natural gas. Obtained results, in comparison to reference values, showed absolute error in Lower HV (net calorific value) determination equal 166 kJ/m3, while relative error was equal 4.66%. Developed technology allows construction of autonomous instrument for instant natural gas quality determination, which can be combined with volume meters in order to provide transparent energy flow measurement and billing for gas consumers. Additionally it can be used for gas sensitive technological process control.
This paper presents a correlative method for the cost-efficient measurement of the energy content of propanated biomethane, which is relevant for injection into gas distribution grids. The gross calorific value and Wobbe index were predicted by the regression models from the measured set of physical properties of the gas sample, including speed of sound, sound attenuation parameter, and carbon dioxide concentration. The required properties can be measured using standard sensors and instruments; therefore, they enable in situ application of the method. The results of the experimental validation corroborated with the results of chromatographic analysis.
Wind energy is one of the leading forms of non-hydro renewable energy sources in the world. Russia ranks among the top countries with vast wind energy resources and among the top CO2 producers as well. Simultaneously, the utilization of wind energy is extremely low compared to other CO2 emitting states. This paper aims to describe the ongoing situation for wind energy development according to the most critical aspects that affect evolution. Investor support schemes, permission procedures, social, educational, and research issues, available data on wind energy resources and local production facilities, and supportive policies are also described. A discussion on possible obstacles and limits to windfarm deployment and probable capacity growth scenarios has been pro-vided. Trends for different economic development prognoses were evaluated considering possible outcomes for wind energy facilities introduction. The optimistic scenario suggests that, depending on global economic growth by 2030, the volume of wind generation capacity could reach up to 10 GW by 2030. The pessimistic scenarios, more probable due to the COVID-19 pandemic, limit the growth by 3.6 and 6.4 GW depending on the gross domestic product volumes decrease. The threats to the renewable energy sources development in Russia due to the world?s current situation are summarized in conclusion.
Raman spectroscopy studies on n and i-butane were performed at pressures of up to 40 GPa at ambient temperatures using the DAC technique. Normal butane undergoes two phase transitions at 1.9(5) GPa and 2.9(5) GPa and isobutane at 2.7(5) GPa and 3.5(5) GPa. These phase transitions were identified based on observations of the splitting Raman modes and the appearance or disappearance of particular Raman peaks. Our results demonstrate the complex, high-pressure behavior of butane isomers.
This study is a comprehensive research of the propane's high-pressure and high-pressure high temperature behaviour using diamond-anvill cell technique combined with vibrational spectroscopy. As we have found, propane while being exposed to the high pressures (5-40 GPa) could exhibit three solid-solid phase transitions. With the applyimg of laser heating technique, propane could react with the formation of various hydrocarbon compounds and carbon. At temperatures less than 900 K and in the range of pressures from 3 to 22 GPa propane remains stable.
Raman and IR spectroscopy studies on propane were performed at pressures of up to 40 GPa at ambient temperatures using the diamond anvil cell technique. Propane undergoes three phase transitions at 6.4(5), 14.5(5), and 26.5(5) GPa in Raman spectroscopy and at 7.0(5), 14.0(5), and 27.0(5) GPa in IR spectroscopy. The phase transitions were identified using the Raman and IR splitting modes and the appearance or disappearance of peaks, which clearly corresponded to the changes in the frequencies of the modes as the pressure changed. Our results demonstrate the complex high-pressure behavior of solid propane.
This study is devoted to the detailed in situ Raman spectroscopy investigation of propane C3H8 in laserheated diamond anvil cells in the range of pressures from 3 to 22 GPa and temperatures from 900 to 3000 K. We show that propane, while being exposed to particular thermobaric conditions, could react, leading to the formation of hydrocarbons, both saturated and unsaturated as well as soot. Our results suggest that propane could be a precursor of heavy hydrocarbons and will produce more than just sooty material when subjected to extreme conditions. These results could clarify the issue of the presence of heavy hydrocarbons in the Earth’s upper mantle.
A short review of up-to-date experimental data and theoretical notions concerning crystallization and the glass transition in complex hydrocarbon systems – crude oils and their fractions – is presented. Special attention is given to the behavior of crude oils and their fractions at high pressure. It is demonstrated that all oils may be approximately divided into two classes. For the first class of oils and fractions (with high initial viscosity), one can observe the onset of the non-equilibrium glassification process at decreasing temperature or increasing pressure. For those in the second class (with low viscosity), cooling or increased pressure leads to a multi-step crystallization process (mainly of n-alkanes) continuing up to the onset of main matrix glassification. For all oils and fractions investigated, crystallization does not influence the position of the glass transition line of the main matrix.
The reciprocal influence of crystallization and vitrification processes in complex hydrocarbon systems was analyzed. These systems consist of a high-molecular-weight amorphous matrix in which easily crystallized components of different molecular weight and composition are dissolved. It was shown that the invariability of the position of the glass transition line indicates that the hydrocarbon matrix of the system does not change when waxes, asphaltenes, and resins are extracted. The presence and composition of the crystalline clusters in the hydrocarbon matrix do not affect the glass transition process. Calorimetric studies of the model system at atmospheric pressure in the 130-370 K temperature range were conducted. The measurements confirmed the existence of the crystallization process in a narrow temperature range and the absence of the glass transition process. The results also show that the appearance of crystallization does not affect the glass transition process.
The thermal conductivity of five samples of crude oil and one sample of gas condensate was measured by the transient hot-wire technique. The measurements were made along isotherms ( 245, 250, 273, 295, 320, 336, and 373 K) in the pressure range from atmospheric pressure up to 1000 MPa and along isobars ( at 0.1, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 1000 MPa) in the temperature range 245-450 K. It was observed that the thermal conductivity of the samples investigated strongly depends on the pressure and rises with increasing pressure for all the temperatures. At a certain pressure, the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity reverses from negative to positive. The pressure at which this reversal was observed varied in the range of 300-380 MPa.
The results of the measurement of the thermal conductivity and the relative volume of two crude oil samples at pressures up to 1 GPa are presented. It is shown that the dependence of thermal conductivity on pressure is a linear function, depends on isothermal compressibility of the liquid, and always increases with rise of pressure.
In the 20th century, giant reserves of natural gas were discovered, intensive construction of main gas pipelines began, and effective technologies for liquefying and transporting natural gas in a reduced state appeared. This led to the fact that in the first decade of the 21st century the share of natural gas in the world energy balance increased significantly. The developed and well-established transportation system and modern fuel and energy equipment allow the delivery of natural gas to almost any place on the planet at a relatively low price. Natural gas is a relatively clean source of energy; when it is burned, an insignificant amount of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide is formed with almost no ash and dust. Currently, a paradigm shift is observed in the global energy market. The global world energy system has entered a new period of its development-the era of natural gas. One of the main questions for this period is for how long will we have natural gas resources? Based the proven reserves and annual production of natural gas data, it is not difficult to calculate that these reserves will be sufficient only for the next 50-60 years. Is this correct? What are the real reserves of natural gas on our planet? Scientific considerations about the origin of hydrocarbons, plus discovered reserves of unconventional gas, particularly shale gas and gas hydrates, provide evidence of the presence of enormous, virtually inexhaustible hydrocarbon resources in our planet. We clearly have sufficient natural gas for several hundred years. To ensure the sustainable development of this energy resource we need to create and implement into the market innovative technologies for natural gas deposit exploration and exploitation. The environmental aspect should be one of the main criteria to assess these new technologies.
Research subject. Experimental modelling of the transformation of complex hydrocarbon systems under extreme ther-mobaric conditions was carried out. The results obtained were compared with geological observations in the Urals, Kamchatka and other regions. Material and methods. The materials for the research were a model hydrocarbon system sim-ilar in composition to natural gas condensate and a system consisting of a mixture of saturated hydrocarbons and various iron-containing minerals enriched in57Fe. Two types of high-pressure equipment were used: a diamond anvils cell and a Toroid-type high-pressure chamber. The experiments were carried out at pressures up to 8.8 GPa in the temperature range 593–1600 K. Results. According to the obtained results, hydrocarbon systems submerged in a subduction slab can maintain their stability down to a depth of 50 km. Upon further immersion, during contact of the hydrocarbon fluid with the surrounding iron-bearing minerals, iron hydrides and carbides are formed. When iron carbides react with water under the thermobaric conditions of the asthenosphere, a water-hydrocarbon fluid is formed. Geological observations, such as methane finds in olivines from ultramafic rocks unaffected by serpentinization, the presence of polycyclic aromatic and heavy saturated hydrocarbons in ophiolite allochthons and ultramafic rocks squeezed out from the paleo-subduction zone of the Urals, are in good agreement with the experimental data. Conclusion. The obtained experimental results and presented geological observations made it possible to propose a concept of deep hydrocarbon cycle. Upon the contact of hydrocarbon systems immersed in a subduction slab with iron-bearing minerals, iron hydrides and carbides are formed. Iron carbides carried in the asthenosphere by convective flows can react with hydrogen contained in the hydroxyl group of some minerals or with water present in the asthenosphere and form a water-hydrocarbon fluid. The mantle fluid can migrate along deep faults into the Earth’s crust and form multilayer oil and gas deposits in rocks of any lithological com-position, genesis and age. In addition to iron carbide coming from the subduction slab, the asthenosphere contains other carbon donors. These donors can serve as a source of deep hydrocarbons, also participating in the deep hydrocarbon cy-cle, being an additional recharge of the total upward flow of a water-hydrocarbon fluid. The described deep hydrocarbon cycle appears to be part of a more general deep carbon cycle.
The concept of a deep hydrocarbon cycle is proposed based on results of experimental modeling of the transformation of hydrocarbons under extreme thermobaric conditions. Hydrocarbons immersed in the subducting slab generally maintain stability to a depth of 50 km. With deeper immersion, the integrity of the traps is disrupted and the hydrocarbon fluid contacts the surrounding ferrous minerals, forming a mixture of iron hydride and iron carbide. This iron carbide transported into the asthenosphere by convec-tive flows can react with hydrogen or water and form an aqueous hydrocarbon fluid that can migrate through deep faults into the Earth’s crust and form multilayer oil and gas deposits. Other carbon donors in addition to iron carbide from the subducting slab exist in the asthenosphere. These donors can serve as a source of deep hydrocarbons that participate in the deep hydrocarbon cycle, as well as an additional feed for the general upward flow of the water‐hydrocarbon fluid. Geological data on the presence of hydrocarbons in ultrabasites squeezed from a slab indicate that complex hydrocarbon systems may exist in a slab at considerable depths. This confirms our experimental results, indicating the stability of hydrocarbons to a depth of 50 km.
A theory of abiotic deep petroleum origin explains that hydrocarbon compounds are generated in the upper mantle and migrate through the deep faults into the Earth's crust. There they form oil and gas deposits in any kind of rock in any kind of the structural position. Until recently one of the main obstacles for further development of this theory has been the lack of reliable and reproducible experimental results confirming the possibility of the spontaneous synthesis of complex hydrocarbon systems at high pressure and temperature. Our experimental results demonstrate that abiotic synthesis of hydrocarbons under mantle conditions is a real chemical process. Different paths of hydrocarbon synthesis under mantle conditions are discussed. Obtained experimental results place the theory of the abiotic deep petroleum origin in the mainstream of modern experimental physics and physical chemistry.
The theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum is a significant part of the modern scientific theories dealing with the formation of hydrocarbons. These theories include the identification of natural hydrocarbon systems, the physical processes leading to their terrestrial concentration, and the dynamic processes controlling the migration of that material into geological reservoirs of petroleum. The theory of the abyssal abiogenic origin of petroleum recognizes that natural gas and petroleum are primordial materials of deep origin which have migrated into the Earth's crust. Experimental results and geological investigations presented in this article convincingly confirm the main postulates of the theory and allow us to reexamine the structure, size, and locality distributions of the world's hydrocarbon reserves.
The concentration of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere has significantly increased over the last 60 years. One of the factors in the growth of methane and its homologue emissions is the intense thawing of gas hydrates, mainly from the Arctic shelf, which remains one of the less studied sources of atmospheric hydrocarbon emissions. Oxidation of methane and light-saturated hydrocarbons by ozone in the upper part of the atmosphere leads to the formation of CO2. The analysis of several datasets presented in this paper allows us to find the correlation between CH4 and CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. This finding suggests that methane and its homologues released from gas hydrates mainly in the Arctic shelf zone become a significant source of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Because the amount of hydrocarbons located in gas hydrate deposits on the Arctic shelf is huge, further evolution of this process can become a serious challenge.
Thermal conductivity, heat capacity per unit volume and phase behavior of Shtokman gas condensate were investigated at high pressure up to 1800 MPa in the temperature interval of 245-373 K using the transient hot-wire method. No crystallization was observed in the sample. The glass transition process in the Shtokman gas condensate takes place in the thermobaric interval which lies outside the range of temperatures and pressures corresponding to the production and transport of the gas condensate.
This study provides a comprehensive, updated, and refined analysis of the challenges and opportunities for Russian natural gas exports based on recent statistical data, academic publications, and media sources. The paper addresses the lack of continuity in studies within the topic since the recent changes are not reflected well enough in the current peer-reviewed literature. In order to understand the perspectives regarding Russian natural gas export in global natural gas markets, we consequently examine the current layout of the global natural gas markets, and challenges and opportunities for Russian natural gas exports. The analysis shows that the U.S. natural gas market is closed for Russian exports. In the European market, Russia is experiencing difficulties in increasing its export shares, or even maintaining current levels, owing to various macroeconomic and geopolitical challenges. Asian markets such as China, India, Japan, and South Korea, are the most promising destinations for future Russian natural gas exports. Despite strong geopolitical challenges and high competition globally, Russia should seek maintaining current export levels in the European market, while implementing a win-win export strategy, and secure its future export shares on the Asian markets. The results of the study can be used for scenario and planning purposes, and be useful for policy makers and industry practitioners.
This study provides a comprehensive, updated, and refined analysis of the challenges and opportunities for Russian natural gas exports based on the latest statistical data, recent academic publications, and media sources. The paper addresses the lack of continuity in studies within the topic since the recent changes are not reflected well enough in the current peer-reviewed literature. In order to understand the perspectives regarding Russian natural gas export in global natural gas markets, we consequently examine the current layout of the global natural gas markets, and challenges and opportunities for Russian natural gas exports. The analysis shows that the U.S. natural gas market is closed for Russian exports. In the European market, Russia is experiencing difficulties in increasing its export shares, or even maintaining current levels, owing to various macroeconomic and geopolitical challenges. Asian markets such as China, India, Japan, and South Korea, are the most promising destinations for future Russian natural gas exports. Despite strong geopolitical challenges and high competition globally, Russia should seek maintaining current export levels in the European market, while implementing a win-win export strategy, and secure its future export shares on the Asian markets. The results of the study can be used for scenario and planning purposes, and be useful for policy makers and industry practitioners.
The results of measuring the thermophysical and acoustic properties of four samples of natural oils in the temperature range 293-353 K at atmospheric pressure are presented. The correlation between thermophysical and acoustic properties in oils is shown. The correlation indicates the possibility of applying the concepts of heat transfer in complex hydrocarbon systems through hyper-sonic sound motions, taking into account their absorption and scattering by density fluctuations.
The article provides information on the main methods of the extraction of synthetic (kerogen) oil from oil shale and evaluates the results of the industrial implementation of these methods outside the Russian Federation. According to the US Geological Survey the geological resources of kerogen oil reach 390 billion tons (not including Russia). Oil shale processing methods are divided into ex-situ and in-situ. The main method of producing synthetic oil is the method of ex-situ retorting, while annual production volumes do not exceed 2 million tons. Currently, there are only nine active commercial projects dealing with synthetic oil production: three in Estonia and six in China. Another five projects have pilot status. None of the pilot projects related to application of in-situ methods of the synthetic oil production has entered the commercial phase. All five pilot projects based on in-situ methods in the last two decades have been closed or stopped. Major oil companies such as Shell, Chevron, ExxonMobil withdrew from all projects related to the processing of oil shale due to the high energy intensity of the processes and possible serious environmental problems. The processing of oil shale has a significant negative impact on the environment, primarily associated with groundwater and air pollution. The data presented in the article suggests that it is too early to claim a breakthrough in the development of kerogen oil.
The reserves of hydrocarbons trapped in gas hydrate deposits are estimated to be enormous, especially comparing with the proven geological resources of natural gas. At the same time the origin of gas hydrate deposits is still debatable. Comparison of the component composition of hydrocarbon mixtures obtained as a result of abiogenic synthesis in the laboratory under thermobaric parameters similar to the conditions of the Earth’s mantle with the composition of samples of natural gas hydrates shows their similarity. This confirms our suggestion about the possible contribution of deep hydrocarbons in gas hydrate formation. Gas hydrate deposits could be formed as a result of upward vertical migration of deep hydrocarbon fluids along faults and fractures.
The heat capacity per unit volume rho c(p) of four crude oil samples were measured at pressure up to 1 GPa and ambient temperature using the transient hot-wire method. It is shown that with rise of pressure the rho c(p) of the investigated samples increases linearly with an average value of 0.051 MJ/(m(3)center dot K) for each 0.1 GPa. The same growth rate of rho c(p) was observed for all the investigated samples.
The problem of petroleum genesis is of interest as a case study in the social philosophy of science. The question of the origin of hydrocarbons was raised in the domestic science by M.V. Lomonosov, V.I. Vernadsky, D.I. Mendeleev. Its importance for the petroleum science is directly associated with the tasks of prospecting and exploration of hydrocarbon deposits. The problem of the petroleum genesis presented in two dominant concepts of the genesis of oil and natural gas, that went down in history as the concept of the biogenic origin of hydrocarbons and the concept of the abiogenic origin of hydrocarbons. The concept of biogenic origin of hydrocarbons initially had a significant margin of support. But with the recent discovery of super-giant oil deposits at a depth of over 10 km, a discrepancy between identified biogenic sources and proven hydrocarbon reserves for most of the giant oil and gas accumulations, the presence of large hydrocarbon deposits in the crystalline basement in the absence of source rocks suites, as well as the emergence of new conceptual, mathematical and technological capabilities the question of a paradigm shift in the petroleum science has appeared. In the article, a paradigm shift is understood as a gestalt-switch or a vision shift. An analysis of the dramatic history of the competition of paradigms reveals the methodological problems of scientific discussions, the features of scientific theories and the validity of hypotheses in the field of petroleum science. The subject of evolution of scientific rationality is problematized. The authors are grateful to Vladimir I. Arshinov, the chief researcher of the Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, for valuable advice on the manuscript.
Latest oil and gas technologies, high oil prices and global climate change make the international business community and oil & gas companies explore distant hard accessible regions such as the Arctic[1], which is characterized by huge hydrocarbon resource potential[2], and can help our society to find a solution for escalating demand for energy. The importance of Arctic petroleum resources goes beyond the regional and national economies. Many consider the Arctic to be the last large petroleum frontier outside the OPEC cartel.[3] Thus geopolitical status of the Arctic is the subject for international game. The paper gives deeper insight into the interconnected and globalized topic of petroleum development in the Arctic region, provides better understanding of up-to-date trends, politics and international relations through the prospect of economic opportunity, which is the strongest driver for the new attention that the Arctic is receiving[4] , especially in the presence of economic and strategic interests, opening of areas by governments for industry exploration and public engagement. A complex series of steps and guidelines is suggested for peaceful, mutually advantageous and successful cooperation of the actors in the Arctic region in the nearest future, because the challenges will be even higher.
In this chapter, we aim to contribute to the understanding of industrial dynamics through a concept of development blocks introduced by Dahmén (1950/1970) applied to the case of thepetroleum industry (oil and natural gas). In pursuing that objective, we first aim to offer some insight into the current state of the energy sector and the petroleum industry by describing the development of the energy system from the 1800s to the present day to reveal the system’s structural changes. Second, we focus on the definition of the development block. We suggest a brief overview of relevant notions and the manner in which they function within the conceptual framework. Third, we apply the development block concept to the case of the petroleum industry. We want to explore the new structural tensions and transformation pressures in the petroleum industry that have occurred within the last transformation period. Finally, we elucidate the theoretical and empirical conclusions both in terms of the use of the concept of development blocks and of the dynamics of the petroleum industry by focusing on the latest industrial period; then, we suggest managerial and policy implications deriving from our investigation.