The action research methodology and several of its methods have previously been highlighted and described by the authors as a fitting and rigorous framework approach for complex waste management systems. This was in response to criticism of the ex ante selection of traditional empiric systems analysis tools to provide decision support and ‘sustainable improvement’ in such complex systems which often involve strong human and political factors. Several of the action research methods described have recently been utilized in a case study around mineral (aggregate) construction and demolition waste in the Stockholm region. These methods were integrated through a series of workshops and work areas undergone together with project members from several private and public sectors. Leaving the problem fuzzy (loosely defined) in the beginning; utilizing convergent interviewing, rich pictures and focus groups allowed the researchers and partner stakeholders to identify not one but several problem areas within the system of focus. Indicator creation and a dialectic processes were then used to identify qualitative and quantitative aspects of salience around these problem areas. These resulting indicators were strengthened through a process of verification. Each indicator was then analyzed by what was deemed to be appropriate and transparent means. It is argued that this approach may create better communication, transparency, and understanding by the stakeholders. These factors in turn allowing stronger stakeholder ownership of the process and assisting in more informed decisions and help to provide stability for desired change. However the process was not without its drawbacks such as intense communication and time requirements.
From 2009 until 2011 project BRA (Bygg-och Rivningsavfall i Stockholms Län) “Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste in Stockholm County” was coordinated from the division of Industrial Ecology, KTH. This project was focused on actively improving (from plural perspectives) the cycles of C&D (specifically non-metallic inert) materials in the region. In response to the normative aim and inter-systems complexity, a highly participative action research procedure was adopted. Through processes of network communication, workshops, a course, and an international symposium - a number of issues (such as market development, recycled product quality, greenhouse gas impacts, collaborative planning, and statistics) were prioritized, researched, and acted upon. Indicators for measuring progress in selected areas were developed and preliminary action plans created. At a final co-organized symposium Swedish delegates laid the groundwork for the establishment of a Swedish C&D recycling b ranch organization. This initiative of continued collaboration between and within sectors is seen as a vehicle for the priorities and action requirements identified in BRA to be further enabled and held in focus. Furthermore, these actors taking ownership of the process is seen as a success in accordance to the original aims and the need for further cycles of evaluation, planning, and action.
Industrial symbiosis (IS) developments have been differentiated as self-organized, facilitated, and planned. This article introduces a tool, Looplocal, which has been built with objectives to support the strategic facilitation of IS. Looplocal is a visualization tool built to assist in 1) Simplifying the identification of regions susceptible to new industrial symbiosis facilitation activities 2) Enabling proactive and targeted marketing of potential exchanges to key actors in specific regions and 3) Assisting facilitators to assess the various strategies and consequential engagement and analysis methodologies suitable for additional IS development in specific regions. The tool compares industrial symbiosis data and estimated regional material and energy flows (on a facility level) to identify potential IS transfer information along with key stakeholder and network data. The authors have performed a proof of concept run of this tool on Sweden. In its early stages of application the method has given results seen as useful for identifying regions susceptible to the investment of symbiosis facilitators' time and resources. The material focus and customization possibilities for the tool show potential for a spectrum of potential facilitators: from waste management companies to national or regional authorities. In conjunction with long term business models, such a tool might be utilized throughout an adaptive chain of facilitation activities and aims.
Industrial symbiosis (IS) developments have been differentiated as ‘self organized’, ‘facilitated’, and ‘planned’. This article introduces a tool that has been built with objectives to support the strategic facilitation of IS. ‘Looplocal’ is a visualization tool built to assist in 1) the identification of regions prone to new industrial symbiosis activities 2) market potential exchanges to key actors and 3) assist aspiring facilitators to assess the various strategies and social methodologies available for the initial phases of a facilitated industrial symbiosis venture. This tool combines life cycle inventory (LCI) data, waste statistics, and national industrial data (including geographic, activity, economic, and contact information) to perform a heuristic analysis of raw material and energy inputs and outputs (wastes). Along with an extensive list of ‘waste to raw material’ substitutions (which may be direct, combined, or upgraded) gathered from IS uncovering studies, IS organizations, and waste and energy professionals; heuristic regional output to input ‘matching’ can be visualized. On a national or regional scale the tool gives a quick overview of what could be the most interesting regions to prioritize resources for IS facilitation. Focusing in on a regional level, the tool visualizes the potential structure of the network in that region (centralized, decentralized, or distributed), allowing a facilitator to adapt the networking approach correspondingly. The tool also visualizes potential IS transfer information, along with key stakeholder data. The authors have performed a proof of concept run of this tool in the ‘industrial disperse’ context of Sweden. In its early stages of application, the method has proven capable of identifying regions prone to the investment of facilitators’ resources. The material focus and custom possibilities for the tool show potential for a wide spectrum of potential facilitators: from waste management companies (using the tool as a strategic market analysis tool) to national or regional authorities looking to lower negative environmental impacts, to ‘sustainable’ industry sectors looking to strengthen market positioning. In conjunction with proper long term business models, such a tool could be reusable itself over the evolution of facilitation activities and aims.
Design/methodology/approach - First, the paper reviews Chinese energy consumption per unit of GDP (EC/GDP) in order to determine the overall effects of the combined policy instruments. Second, the different policy instruments are compared in terms of their effects. Third, the actual trends of EC/GDP in two provinces and the instruments adopted by them are analysed on the provincial level.
Findings - The decline in EC/GDP can indirectly reflect the Chinese contribution to mitigation of CO2 emissions since fossil fuels dominate Chinese energy consumption. The national EC/GDP values have shown a declining trend from 2005 to date, indicating that the policy instruments are very important to mitigate climate change as regards reducing EC/GDP. The technological improvement regulations have made the greatest contribution to date to reduce EC/GDP values. The experiences from the Beijing and Shandong province indicate that their final targets in 2010 will be most likely achieved because the different provinces are not only following the national policy instruments but have also developed quite a few new instruments to assist in reaching the these reductions.
Research limitations/implications - There are three limitations regarding Chinese policy instruments analysis. First, the paper does not go far to determine the other factors which can affect EC/GDP apart from policy instruments. Second, some data were lacking and there may be inaccuracies in the existing data that could affect the analysis results. Third, EC/GDP cannot reflect the Chinese contribution to mitigation of CO2 emissions if the composition of Chinese energy consumption changes significantly.
Originality/value - The paper addresses the importance of various policy instruments in reducing EC/GDP. The results can be referenced by Chinese policy makers on both the national and provincial level.
The follow-up of Stockholm’s Action Programme on Climate Change showed that thegreenhouse gas emission from Stockholm City was reduced between 2000 and 2005.Stockholm City reached it’s emission targets of 2005, i.e. 4,0 tonnes CO2-equivivalent percapita compared to 5,3 tonnes CO2-eq. per capita in the year 2000. Commissioned by the viceMayor Ulla Hamilton the Environmental division examine possibilities to further reducegreenhouse gas emissions to 3,5 tonnes CO2-eq. and/or 3,0 tonnes CO2-eq. per capita by theyear 2015. This report forms a basis for the Environmental division’s statement on thecommission.The report presents a business-as-usual-scenario for the continuing greenhouse gas emissionsin the Stockholm City to the year 2015. Emissions from the heating sector, electricity use andthe transport sector are included in the scenario. Emissions from transportations outside theStockholm City geographical border by the inhabitants of Stockholm i.e. long distance travelby car, train and flight are not included in the scenario. Neither are emissions due toconsumptions of goods and services included. The greenhouse gas emissions in this reportcomprise of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide expressed as CO2-equivalents. Theemissions have a life cycle assessment perspective.The scenario shows that the greenhouse gas emissions reduce by ca 500 kton CO2-eq.between 2005 and 2015 i.e. emissions drops from ca 3 100 kton CO2-eq. in 2005 to 2 580kton CO2-eq. in 2015. This includes effects of reinstatement of the congestion fees and thetwo new Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants in Värtan and Brista. Are these effectsexcluded the total emissions are set to be 340 kton CO2-eq. higher in 2015 (i.e. total of 2 900kton CO2-eq.).The heating sector reduces it’s emissions by ca 360 kton CO2-eq.between 2005 and 2015.Their share of the total emissions falls from 45 % to 39 %. Emissions from the electricity usereduce by ca 50 kton CO2-eq. between 2005 and 2015. Despite a drop in the emissions theirshare of the total emissions increases from 31 % to 34 %. The transport sector also reducesit’s emissions by ca 90 kton CO2-eq. between 2005 and 2015 but still their share of the totalemissions increases from 24 % to 26 % during the same time period.With an increase of the population in Stockholm City by 60 000 the emissions per capitadrops from ca 4,0 tonnes CO2-eq. year 2005 to 3,1 tonnes CO2-eq. year 2015. To reachemission targets set by Stockholm City of 3,0 tonnes CO2-eq. per capita the emissions need toreduce further by 85 kton CO2-eq. in 2015.The energy use for heating and electricity increases by ca 880 GWh between 2005 and 2015(i.e. + 6 %) and the road traffic in Stockholm City increases by 336 million vehicle kilometerbetween 2005 and 2015 (i.e. + 11 %).Two major factors that have a heavy impact on the development of the emissions to 2015 arethe compositions of fuels of both the Nordic electricity mix and the district heating mix. Thescenario shows that 73 % of the total greenhouse gas emission reduction between 2005 and2015 depends on the new CHP plants and also transitions to district heating. The scenarioshows that the two mixes affect approximately 60 % of the total emissions in 2015. Ouranalysis of sensitivity shows that a change in the mixes affects the total greenhouse gas
emissions so that the emissions per capita year 2015 increases to 3,4 tonnes CO2-eq.compared to the business-as-usual-scenario.The greater amount of greenhouse gas emission reduction take place in the heating sector, thisis due to large technical investments in the energy system which shows that the next step tofurther reduce greenhouse gas emissions will not come as easy in the transport sector andelectricity use sector.
The Coastman project (Costal Zone Management in theBaltic Sea region) studies real and/or possible conflicts inseveral harbour areas of the Baltic Sea, aiming to gatherknowledge and develop methods and solutions for conflictmitigation and for sustainable planning processes in coastalareas.
In view of the importance of coastal areas to Baltic countries, integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is a matter of prime concern. ICZM is also an important feature of the project Coastal Zone Management in the Baltic Sea Region (COASTMAN), undertaken in the context of the Interreg IIIB (Baltic Sea) Programme. These experiences are presented in this book, which begins with an overview of the issue of conflict resolution in coastal zone management followed by a description of a set of administrative and legal processes and of case studies in the following regions: Hamburg (Germany), Haapsalu (Estonia), Klaipeda (Lithuania), Primorsk (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden) and Ventspils (Latvia). The third part presents information relating to the educational and training aspects of conflict resolution in ICZM. Thanks to its scope and trans-national dimension, this Handbook will be instrumental for organisations responsible for ICZM and will provide some inspiration towards initiatives that can be undertaken at the local level in order to better understand, and hopefully address, conflicts arising in coastal areas.
A coupled source-transport-storage model was developed to determine the origin and path of copper from materials/goods in use in the urban drainage area and the fate of copper in local recipient lakes The model was applied and tested using five small lakes in Stockholm, Sweden. In the case of the polluted lakes Racksta Trask, Trekanten and Langsjon, the source strengths of copper identified by the model were found to be well linked with independently observed copper contents in the lake sediments through the model. The model results also showed that traffic emissions, especially from brake linings, dominated the total load in all five cases Sequential sedimentation and burial proved to be the most important fate processes of copper in all lakes, except Racksta Trask, where outflow dominated The model indicated that the sediment copper content can be used as a tracer of the urban diffuse copper source strength, but that the response to changes in source strength is fairly slow (decades) Major uncertainties in the source model were related to management of stormwater in the urban area, the rate of wear of brake linings and weathering of copper roofs The uncertainty of the coupled model is in addition affected mainly by parameters quantifying the sedimentation and bury processes, such as particulate fraction, settling velocity of particles, and sedimentation rate As a demonstration example, we used the model to predict the response of the sediment copper level to a decrease in the copper load from the urban catchment in one of the case study lakes (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved
Eutrophication is a major threat to the Baltic Sea, causing algae blooms and hypoxic bottoms. Ecological engineering methods aiming at help mitigating the nutrient imbalance problems have already been initiated or are being planned in the coastal zones of the Baltic Sea. This includes harvesting of reed, macro algae and blue mussels as nutrient and energy natural resources. The potential and feasibility of such methods to form the basis for sustainable use of natural resources is governed by the ecological, technical, economic and social aspects associated with the whole chain of processes from biomass to end products, e.g. biogas, fertilizers, and wastes. As a first step in a sustainability assessment, we show that biogas production from algae and reed is associated with a net energy benefit. Blue mussels do not result in a net energy benefit if used for biogas production, but represent the most efficient way of removing nutrients. Based on these preliminary results, we suggest that biogas production from reed and macro algae is worthy of further investigation, whereas for blue mussels, an alternative product must be found.
Urban sustainable development is today seen as one of the keys towards unlocking the quest for a sustainable world. One feature of urban sustainability is the increased interest in developing sustainable urban districts. For many of these developments, guiding sustainability documents are developed to frame future goals. However, few of these documents specify on which grounds they determine the sustainability of goals and they are largely developed as independent islands of local sustainability. This is unfortunate as cities and their districts are fully dependent on surrounding environments. Failing to include a holistic approach into,the local planning increases the risk of sub-optimisation, future lock-ins and missed targets on a higher level. The aim of this study is to analyse whether the environmental and sustainability programme for Stockholm Royal Seaport, a new urban district in Stockholm, Sweden, can guide development of the district towards holistic ecological sustainability. By using the Framework for Strategic Sustainable Development a holistic template for an ecologically sustainable planet has been described, important sectors for the built environment have been identified and the environmental and sustainability programme for the district has been analysed. This study showed that the vision and operational goals put forward in the Stockholm Royal Seaport programme complies relatively well with the designed template. However, important deviations in all sectors but land use have been identified. These deviations arise in the translation process between theory and practice. The vision for the district and the implementation phase are not aligned due to too narrow a perspective of a sustainable urban district, lack of robust sustainability principles including use of such to identify key strategic questions. In addition to the lack of an all-embracing conceptual framework, there is also a lack of structures for cooperation between stakeholders and conflicts between local and regional agendas. Use of a unifying framework can describe desirable future scenarios where the local level does not contribute to violation of the universal sustainability principles and identify step-wise routes towards such scenarios.
Cites have been identified as one key arena to meet future sustainability challenges. However, if cites are to be part of the transition it must become possible to confirm results of ongoing actions. By the introduction information and communication technologies, it has become easier to collect performance parameters from the built environment, thereby enable more detailed evaluation. The aim of this paper is therefore to examine the potential and limitation of using dynamic and high resolution meter data for evaluation of energy consumption in buildings and households. The novelty of this approach is that dynamic and high resolution meter data can increase the level of detail in evaluation results and ease detection of deviations in the structures performance. However, most benefits are found from the occupant perspective, as more detailed evaluation information enable better inclusion of this stakeholder group. Furthermore this study has shown that the commonly used indicator energy use per heated floor area is an insufficient communication tool when taking holistic approach to building energy evaluation. Limitation to full use of dynamic and high resolution meter data have been identified to data collection and management, preservation of personal integrity and incentives to react on the given evaluation information.
This study evaluated the impact of socio-economic and lifestyle changes on nutrient loads and water quality in Haapsalu Bay, the Baltic Sea between 1995-1996 and 2003-2004. Monthly monitoring data of water quality in four rivers discharging to the bay and seawater at five sea stations were used. External input of TN to the bay remained almost unchanged during the study period despite of the somewhat higher riverine load that was explained by intensified agriculture. The TP input decreased by approximately 45% due to the decrease in river and point source loads. Point sources contribute about one-third of the P load to the bay. An overall decreasing gradient from the rivers to the mouth of the bay was observed both for TP and TN concentrations indicating probable removal of these elements from the water column along the east-west transect. In order to keep the TN/TP ratio within the range that suppresses eutrophication in the bay, further efforts must be implemented to reduce point source phosphorus load.
Cities’ climate targets are dependent on system boundaries and methods of calculations. This article identify, explore and present an overview of methodological considerations of importance in order to facilitate understanding, comparing and setting targets for green house gas emissions and energy use in cities. A survey on how eight European cities set their climate targets is presented. A framework of methodological considerations that are of importance when setting targets for cities is presented. A review of existing GHG accounting protocols, three major sustainable city frameworks and a selection of scientific papers reporting on accounting methodologies was used as a basis for developing the methodological considerations. Four main categories were identified, temporal scope, object for target setting, unit of target, and range of target. For each category there is an in-depth discussion of them in relation to targets for cities. The survey of the European cities showed that there is quite a little awareness of what is, or could be, included in the targets. This makes comparison and benchmarking almost impossible today. It also shows the need for comprehensive and consistent accounting protocols and methodologies.
Climate targets for cities abound. However, what these targets really imply is dependent on a number of decisions regarding system boundaries and methods of calculation. In order to understand and compare cities' climate targets, there is a need for a generic and comprehensive framework of key methodological considerations. This paper identifies eight key methodological considerations for the different choices that can be made when setting targets for GHG emissions in a city and arranges them in four categories: temporal scope of target, object for target setting, unit of target, and range of target. To explore how target setting is carried out in practice, the climate targets of eight European cities were analysed. The results showed that these targets cover only a limited part of what could be included. Moreover, the cities showed quite limited awareness of what is, or could be, include in the targets. This makes comparison and benchmarking between cities difficult.
A number of life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have been undertaken within the last 15 years comparing end-of-life treatment options for post-consumer plastic waste, including techniques such as: mechanical recycling, feedstock recycling, incineration with energy recovery and landfilling. These have attempted to support decisions in the formulation of waste management strategies and policies. In light of the introduction of life cycle thinking into European waste policies, specifically in relation to the waste hierarchy, a literature review of publically available LCA studies evaluating alternative end-of-life treatment options for plastic waste has been conducted. This has been done in order to: establish if a consensus exists as to the environmentally preferable treatment option for plastic waste; identify the methodological considerations and assumptions that have led to these conclusions; and determine the legitimacy of applying the waste hierarchy to the plastic waste stream. The majority of the LCA studies concluded that, when single polymer plastic waste fractions with little organic contamination are recycled and replace virgin plastic at a ratio of close to 1:1, recycling is generally the environmentally preferred treatment option when compared to municipal solid waste incineration. It has been found that assumptions relating to the virgin material substitution ratio and level of organic contamination can have a significant influence upon the results of these studies. Although a limited number of studies addressed feedstock recycling, feedstock recycling and the use of plastic waste as a solid recovered fuel in cement kilns were preferred to municipal solid waste incineration. Landfilling of plastic waste compared to municipal solid waste incineration proved to be the least preferred option for all impact categories except for global warming potential. Due to the uncertainty surrounding some assumptions in the studies, it cannot be said with confidence that the waste hierarchy should be applied to plastic waste management as a general rule.
As society continues its pursuit of sustainable development the importance of resourceefficiency and waste management has become increasingly recognised. As a consequence, a number ofEuropean policies implement the concept of life cycle thinking in order to reduce the negativeenvironmental impact of waste management systems. The benefit of life cycle thinking is that itsholistic perspective allows one to account for the environmental impacts or benefits of not only thewaste system but connected systems - such as energy and material production. However, the currentuse of life cycle thinking in long-term waste management strategy has been called into questionregarding its ability to facilitate a transition toward sustainable waste management.This paper presents a conceptual framework for the use of life cycle thinking as an element insustainability transitions. It draws on transition theory and the concept of conventional regimes(economics of conventions) in order to provide a new perspective on the relationship between life cyclethinking and sustainable waste management.
Innovation studies often use regimes as a theoretical construct to underst and technological evolution.Theories such as the multi-level perspective of system innovation depart from foundations found in science and technology studies, evolutionary economics, structuration theory and neo-institutional theory. Several constructive criticisms, however, have been levelled against the multi-level perspective suggesting it may be overly functionalistic and risk neglecting the role of agency. This paper revisits such criticisms in addition to the conceptualisation of rules and agency in the multi-level perspective. Subsequently, this paper draws on an emerging school of economic thought, suggesting a conceptual framework of regimes based in the economicsof conventions. This paper outlines the theoretical basis to concept of conventional regimes, highlighting a case of innovation where the emergence of principles which depart from those of the conventional regime has led to the development of niche spaces for innovation, departing from the conventional regime. This paper goes onto compare some of the commonalities and difference between this approach to studying innovation and the multi-level perspective.
This article analyses the evolution of German plastic waste management technologies. Using insights from the economics of conventions, we investigate why the course of events led action to transpire in a specific way, when in the same conditions different actions may have occurred. The development of feedstock recycling niche was heavily affected by the political objectives of the regime. The establishment of these objectives were in turn influenced by actors’ games played out within the regime, in the context of the prevailing conventional principles and conventional objectives which regulate human action. In addition to market forces, the decline of feedstock recycling can then be related to its role as a strategy which was not in keeping with the strict interpretation of the prevention and valorisation principles, whose articulation formed the core principles ofthe German waste management regime.
As the impetus of life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle thinking (LCT) in waste management policy is increasing, decision makers may face conflicting advice on the potential environmental impacts of competing end-of-life treatment options. This paper discusses the problem posed by the Waste Framework Directive, 2008/98/EC, where LCT is required to justify the departure of waste streams from the waste hierarchy. This paper places LCA of waste management systems in the context of applying 'normal' science to 'post-normal' problems. The current application of La in waste policy is reviewed in order to determine the epistemic basis to such applications. Furthermore, several cases are reviewed where controversy has surrounded the a priori purpose of applying LCT; the justification of a clear-cut solution to environmental problems. We show how the excess of objectivity, the social construction of knowledge and the playing out of actors' games may limit the ability of LCT to offer an authoritative justification for the derogation of waste streams from the waste hierarchy. However, one of the major benefits of LCT lies in its ability to change actors problem perception. Hence, the application of LCT may be better suited to both the identification of areas of environmental impact and the positioning of waste management solutions further up the waste policy agenda.
Waste management in Europe has experienced significant changes since the 1970s. The majority of Member State waste management regimes have shifted from policies based on the control of waste disposal activities, to include goals for waste prevention and recovery. The rapid increase of plastic packaging recycling in Germany had a number of unintended consequences. In the first years of the Packaging Ordinance, the majority of plastic packaging collected was exported to China, Eastern Europe, and other EU Member States due to lack of national capacity. The setting of high recycling targets for plastic packaging waste between 1991 and 1998 and the prohibition of incineration with energy recovery was a key driver of recycling technology innovation in Germany. When adopting new principles to serve as the foundation of belief, they should synchronize with the existing waste management myths of individual regions, as myths may differ from region to region illustrating different cultural ideals.
This article considers the legitimacy of the waste hierarchy in the context of European waste management regimes. Pragmatic sociology and the economics of conventions are drawn upon to understand how actors legitimate action. The waste hierarchy is placed in the context of the plural systems of legitimacy actors utilise when justifying action. Empirical data from semi-structured interviews with national and local level actors in England and France are used to identify the plural legitimacies which underpin action in waste management regimes, and which actors utilise to justify their use of the waste hierarchy. This data suggest the waste hierarchy is as a principle of coordination justified as both an expression of the environmental efficiency of waste treatment options, and whose implementation is the result of a legitimate policy making process at the European level. The article concludes with a discussion of the qualification and evolution ofthe waste hierarchy.
Despite management of point sources, heavy metals today remain at an elevated level in the urban environment, with diffuse sources dominating the emissions. In order to manage these pollutants, it is necessary to understand the coupling between the urban sources of heavy metals and their monitored, environmental levels, for example in aquatic sediments. In this work, we suggest a simple approach to quantitatively model Cu from its urban sources through a complex aquatic system. We apply the proposed model to Stockholm, situated between Lake Malaren and the archipelago of the Baltic sea, and discuss data availability along with conceptual difficulties. Using literature data, we show that Cu occurs at elevated levels in the aquatic sediment close to the centre of Stockholm, Sweden.
Separating household waste into fractions at the place where it was generated is one of the most popular methods of collection household waste in most European countries. In 1994 a producer responsibility ordinance for packaging was introduced in Sweden. This ordinance mandates householders to sort out packaging waste, clean the waste and sort different package materials – paper, plastic, glass and metal in assigned recycling bins. Household’s participation is mandatory but in practice it is rarely controlled and enforced.
In our study we have focused our interest on seeing the composition of the “trash bags”, theoretically the rest of the waste after household sorting. The aim of the study was to identify the main fractions of household “trash bags” and the difference in the fraction among 3 different districts in Stockholm, which have practically analogous facilities for separate collection of household waste but rather different socioeconomically characteristics. The chosen districts were located: one in the downtown and two in the suburb districts, one of which has a big multicultural characteristic due to the big amount of emigrants living there.
The results of the study show that the biggest fraction from the composition analyses is organic fraction. This fraction is varying from 48% in the multicultural suburban district to 34% in the downtown. These results show the big opportunity for implementation the separate organic waste collection spatially in the suburban areas of Stockholm. The amount of packaging material in the “trash bags” still composes around 28-50%. The composition of the packaging material differs in the 3 districts
A meta-analysis was made of results from previous studies on different variables influencing and determining the recycling behaviour of householders. These studies were conducted by researchers working in various fields in a number of different countries and are published in diverse journals.
We evaluated trends in research outputs in the period 1990-2010, during which the provision of recycling facilities to householders has greatly expanded and requirements have become more extensive and often more complex. Variables affecting the recycling behaviour of householders were classified into four theoretical groups: socio-psychological, technical-organisational, individual socio-demographic and study-specific. These groups (clusters) were identified in a meta-analysis of 63 empirical studies culled from published research. The strongest predictors of householders’ recycling behaviour were identified as being convenience, moral norms, information and environmental concern. The theoretical framework developed can be used to formulate questionnaires and in data analysis.