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Khodadadi, A., Nordström, H., Eriksson, R. & Söder, L. (2025). Assessing potential benefits of dynamic frequency restoration reserve dimensioning in multi-area power systems. Electric power systems research, 247, Article ID 111807.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Assessing potential benefits of dynamic frequency restoration reserve dimensioning in multi-area power systems
2025 (English)In: Electric power systems research, ISSN 0378-7796, E-ISSN 1873-2046, Vol. 247, article id 111807Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This article investigates the potential benefits of dynamic Frequency Restoration Reserve (FRR) allocation and dimensioning in a multi-area context, focusing on the Nordic Load-Frequency Control block. Emphasis is placed on how the available information impacts the FRR dimensioning. To assess the potential benefits, a model for multi-area FRR dimensioning is proposed, applicable to both static and dynamic dimensioning approaches. The proposed FRR dimensioning model includes a new application of a methodology to simulate imbalance scenarios and sequentially dimensions FRR capacity for reference incidents and normal imbalances. The main benefit of dynamic FRR dimensioning is that the need for FRR capacity is continuously updated according to the expected short-term operating conditions, such that the daily reliability level is always close to the desired reliability level. Case study results show that dynamic FRR dimensioning can lead to a reduction in total reserve needs compared to a static approach. This reduction is significantly larger if FRR is dimensioned after the clearing of the day-ahead market.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2025
Keywords
Chance-constrained optimization, Dynamic dimensioning, Frequency Restoration Reserves (FRR), Imbalance simulation, Multi-area power system
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-364154 (URN)10.1016/j.epsr.2025.111807 (DOI)001504561100001 ()2-s2.0-105005833034 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250605

Available from: 2025-06-04 Created: 2025-06-04 Last updated: 2025-10-09Bibliographically approved
Anggraini, D., Amelin, M. & Söder, L. (2025). Business models for electric vehicle charging considering grid limitations: An extended review from the European electricity market perspective. Applied Energy, 399, Article ID 126493.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Business models for electric vehicle charging considering grid limitations: An extended review from the European electricity market perspective
2025 (English)In: Applied Energy, ISSN 0306-2619, E-ISSN 1872-9118, Vol. 399, article id 126493Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The growing adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs) presents challenges for the power grid, especially in meeting the peak demand without overloading the power system. Conventional grid reinforcement strategies are often costly and time-consuming, making them insufficient to address increased energy demand from simultaneous EV charging. However, when effectively managed, EV charging can be a flexible resource supporting grid stability and balance. To efficiently use this flexibility, business models play a crucial role in organising and incentivising market participation, yet the interaction between market players and grid integration remains underexplored. This article presents an extended and systematic review of over 100 state-of-the-art studies on business models for EV charging under grid limitations, presenting the most comprehensive analysis to date. Unlike the previous studies that primarily focus on technical EV-grid integration, this study combines technical and market-based solutions, focusing on the European electricity market and stakeholder perspectives. Moreover, the study identifies research gaps and proposes recommendations to improve or develop new business models for more efficient use of EV flexibility. The findings offer valuable insights for researchers, industry players, policymakers, and other actors aiming to improve the efficient usage of EV charging flexibility.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2025
Keywords
Business models, Electric vehicle (EV) charging, Electricity market, Flexibility, Grid impacts, Grid limitations
National Category
Energy Systems Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering Transport Systems and Logistics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-368571 (URN)10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126493 (DOI)001543575700001 ()2-s2.0-105011853578 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250820

Available from: 2025-08-20 Created: 2025-08-20 Last updated: 2025-08-20Bibliographically approved
Yan, D., Mashhoodi, B., Kang, L., Sun, H., Söder, L., Ge, Y. E. & Xu, Q. (2025). Distributed Operation of Hydrogen Integrated Microgrids and Transportation System Considering Energy Sharing and Ancillary Service Market. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Distributed Operation of Hydrogen Integrated Microgrids and Transportation System Considering Energy Sharing and Ancillary Service Market
Show others...
2025 (English)In: IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification, E-ISSN 2332-7782Article in journal (Refereed) Epub ahead of print
Abstract [en]

The widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HVs) is tightening the interdependence between power and transportation systems, calling for better coordination between them. To address this challenge, this paper proposed a distributed coordination method for the hydrogen-integrated microgrids and transportation system. First, we introduce energy sharing among microgrids which reduces the overall system cost by 16.2% and analyze how it improves the traffic flow. Additionally, we develop bidding models for microgrids participating in joint energy and ancillary service markets, maximizing flexible resources utilization and increasing revenue by 147%. A mixed vehicle flow transportation system model is then established, including EVs, HVs, and gasoline vehicles. To coordinate the two individual systems efficiently, a distributed algorithm is proposed, incorporating a filtering mechanism that reduces the communication burden by 63% during the iterative process. Uncertainties and nonlinearities are handled using distributionally robust method and linearization techniques. Finally, case studies validate the effectiveness of the proposed method and highlight the mutual impact between the two systems.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2025
Keywords
Electric vehicle, electricity market, hydrogen, microgrid, transportation
National Category
Energy Systems Transport Systems and Logistics Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering Control Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-370094 (URN)10.1109/TTE.2025.3606786 (DOI)2-s2.0-105015154289 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250919

Available from: 2025-09-19 Created: 2025-09-19 Last updated: 2026-01-08Bibliographically approved
Jónsdóttir, V., Söder, L. & Nordström, L. (2025). Impact from Different Reserve Allocation Strategies in Hydropower Systems. In: Proceedings 2025 21st International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM): . Paper presented at 21st International Conference on the European Energy Market-EEM-Annual, MAY 27-29, 2025, Lisbon, PORTUGAL. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Article ID 829.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Impact from Different Reserve Allocation Strategies in Hydropower Systems
2025 (English)In: Proceedings 2025 21st International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) , 2025, article id 829Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Power systems are evolving in response to the growing integration of variable renewable resources. Considering this, balancing reserves are becoming more important for maintaining the continuous balance between total production and demand in the power system. However, the allocation of these reserves comes at a cost, given their inherent link to the energy traded in the day-ahead electricity market. This study examines the implications of different reserve allocation strategies using a modeling framework that incorporates dispatchable hydropower and intermittent wind power alongside demand to evaluate the costs of securing sufficient reserves in a highly renewable energy system. The analysis indicates that aligning reserve allocation more closely with the conditions expected at the time of operation results in improved outcomes, leading to better utilization of stored water in hydropower reservoirs and lower operational costs. Therefore, considering the increasing integration of variable renewable energy sources, the findings highlight the need to investigate more effective approaches for reserve allocation that are better aligned with anticipated system conditions.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2025
Series
International Conference on the European Energy Market, ISSN 2165-4077
Keywords
Balancing Reserves, Day-Ahead Market, Hydropower Optimization, Renewable Energy Integration, Reserve Allocation
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-375143 (URN)10.1109/EEM64765.2025.11050079 (DOI)001545052300002 ()2-s2.0-105011074277 (Scopus ID)
Conference
21st International Conference on the European Energy Market-EEM-Annual, MAY 27-29, 2025, Lisbon, PORTUGAL
Note

Part of ISBN 979-8-3315-1279-8; 979-8-3315-1278-1

QC 20260109

Available from: 2026-01-09 Created: 2026-01-09 Last updated: 2026-01-09Bibliographically approved
Söder, L. (2025). Kommentarer till rapporten:Kraftsystem Robust för 300 TWh: Intressant experiment-studie för Svenskt Näringsliv – men felaktig tolkning från Svenskt Näringsliv. Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Kommentarer till rapporten:Kraftsystem Robust för 300 TWh: Intressant experiment-studie för Svenskt Näringsliv – men felaktig tolkning från Svenskt Näringsliv
2025 (Swedish)Report (Other (popular science, discussion, etc.))
Abstract [sv]

Svenskt Näringsliv har låtit en konsult, Quantified Carbon, göra en långsiktig scenarioanalys om det svenska framtida kraftsystemet. Många frågeställningar är mycket relevanta och det som, generellt sett, är intressant är att sätta upp teknikneutralitet som en förutsättning samt att göra en ekonomisk optimering om lämplig kombination av olika kraftkällor. Nu har det kommit en uppdatering som beaktar en ytterligare framtida ökad elanvändning (nu 300 TWh/år) jämfört med de tidigare rapporterna, 290 TWh/år, 240 TWh/år respektive 210 TWh/år.

Denna rapport kommenterar de nya antagandena och slutsatserna. De tidigare är också kommenterade.

I den nya rapporten finns jämförelsevis mycket få detaljer om tillämpad modellering, vilket begränsar möjligheten för utomstående att förstå varför och hur man kommit fram till olika delar av resultaten. Men det finns tillräckligt mycket som är värt att kommentera.

Vad som är speciellt märkligt är de slutsatser som dras från denna rapport av uppdragsgivaren, Svenskt Näringsliv i en debatt-artikel i Dagens Industri. Det märkliga är kopplingen mellan antaganden och slutsatser, samt kopplingen mellan elpriser och investerings-viljan för nya industrier i Sverige.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2025. p. 12
Keywords
Systemsimulering, optimering, kärnkraft, vindkraft
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Research subject
Electrical Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-361635 (URN)
Note

QC 20250325

Available from: 2025-03-24 Created: 2025-03-24 Last updated: 2025-03-25Bibliographically approved
Anggraini, D., Amelin, M. & Söder, L. (2025). Monte Carlo Simulation of Electric Vehicle Charging Schemes for an EV Aggregator Offering Ancillary Services Under Grid Limitations. In: Proceedings 2025 21st International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM): . Paper presented at 21st International Conference on the European Energy Market-EEM-Annual, MAY 27-29, 2025, Lisbon, PORTUGAL. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Article ID 845.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Monte Carlo Simulation of Electric Vehicle Charging Schemes for an EV Aggregator Offering Ancillary Services Under Grid Limitations
2025 (English)In: Proceedings 2025 21st International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) , 2025, article id 845Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

The growing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) presents challenges for power systems, particularly due to uncontrolled charging. Such charging can lead to grid overload that requires immediate grid reinforcement. This paper proposes a planning model for an EV aggregator participating in ancillary service markets while considering the distribution grid limitations. Monte Carlo simulations capture uncertainties in mobility patterns and activations of the ancillary services. We compare uncontrolled charging with a bidirectional smart charging algorithm, which is formulated as a mixed-integer linear program. A case study focusing on the Swedish market, specifically regarding participation in the frequency containment reserve, demonstrates that smart charging benefits the EV aggregator, EV owners, and the power system. The results highlight that the flexibility of the EV can optimize the existing utilization of the grid and delay the reinforcement of the grid. The proposed planning model supports decision-making in uncertain markets, ensuring the feasibility of the EV aggregator business model.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2025
Series
International Conference on the European Energy Market, ISSN 2165-4077
Keywords
Ancillary Services, Electric Vehicle Aggregators, Grid Limitations, Mixed-Integer Linear Programming, Monte Carlo Simulations
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-375145 (URN)10.1109/EEM64765.2025.11050259 (DOI)001545052300181 ()2-s2.0-105011071663 (Scopus ID)
Conference
21st International Conference on the European Energy Market-EEM-Annual, MAY 27-29, 2025, Lisbon, PORTUGAL
Note

Part of ISBN 979-8-3315-1279-8; 979-8-3315-1278-1

QC 20260109

Available from: 2026-01-09 Created: 2026-01-09 Last updated: 2026-01-09Bibliographically approved
Nordström, H., Söder, L. & Hesamzadeh, M. R. (2025). System cost-minimizing scheduling of battery energy storage systems providing energy and balancing services. Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks, 43, Article ID 101820.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>System cost-minimizing scheduling of battery energy storage systems providing energy and balancing services
2025 (English)In: Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks, E-ISSN 2352-4677, Vol. 43, article id 101820Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

To ensure that battery energy storage systems (BESSs) are used to facilitate the operation of power systems with high shares of variable renewable energy (VRE) sources, new policies for BESSs are currently being designed. This paper presents a new model for the system cost-minimizing scheduling of BESSs providing energy and balancing services, which can be used as a policy-evaluation tool and as a benchmark for evaluating current market performance. The model is based on a stochastic optimization problem, which we suggest solving using an algorithm combining Benders Decomposition (BD) and Stochastic Dual Dynamic Programming (SDDP). In this paper, we apply the model to study how the system cost-minimal scheduling of BESSs in Sweden is impacted by new requirements for Limited Energy Reservoir (LER) resources providing Frequency Containment Reserves (FCR). Case study results show that new requirements related to guaranteeing a minimum full activation time significantly impact the operation of BESSs, reducing the provision of upregulating FCR capacity for disturbances (FCR-D up) by over 60 %. Also, the case study results show that the consideration of BESSs’ degradation costs reduces the provision of energy as well as balancing services from BESSs. The daily discharged energy from BESSs is more than 85 % lower if the degradation costs are considered, compared to if they are not considered.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2025
Keywords
Battery energy storage systems, Benders decomposition, Frequency containment reserve (FCR), Stochastic dual dynamic programming (SDDP), Stochastic optimization
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering Energy Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-368573 (URN)10.1016/j.segan.2025.101820 (DOI)001542835700003 ()2-s2.0-105011984390 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250820

Available from: 2025-08-20 Created: 2025-08-20 Last updated: 2025-10-09Bibliographically approved
Söder, L. (2024). Angående Svenska Kraftnäts metod:  ”Effekttillräcklighet enligt statisk metod”: Uppdaterade parametrar, konsekvenser och kommentarer. Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Angående Svenska Kraftnäts metod:  ”Effekttillräcklighet enligt statisk metod”: Uppdaterade parametrar, konsekvenser och kommentarer
2024 (Swedish)Report (Other academic)
Abstract [sv]

Svenska kraftnät använder metoden ”Effekttillräcklighet enligt statisk metod”. Vad denna egentligen beräknar är:

Hur mycket effekt behöver importeras:

·       Under den timmen med den högsta elförbrukning som kan inträffa under ett normalår eller under den mest extrema timmen vart 10:e eller 20:e år (dvs en mycket ovanlig situation). 

·       om: Vindkraften producerar på en nivå som överskrids under 91 procent av tiden

·       om: Kärnkraften producerar på en genomsnittlig nivå (90%), vilken är den nivå som underskrids under ca 35-42 procent av tiden. Dvs under 58-65 procent av tiden är tillgänglig effekt högre.

·       om: Även andra kraftslag producerar på en given procent av installerad effekt.

Detta innebär (med de värden de använder) att det är cirka 4 procent sannolikhet att såväl kärnkraften som vindkraften skulle ge lägre effekt än det som antas, och detta vid den mest extrema timmen under 10 eller 20 år. Och frågan är inte ”effektbrist” utan ”behov av import” vid dessa mycket osannolika enstaka timmar.

 

Det som studerats i denna rapport är inverkan av en mer rimlig ansats av vilka tillgänglighetsdata man ska använda för vindkraft för att den ska ge samma effektbidrag (samma sannolikhet) som kärnkraft. Resultatet är att vindkraftens ”tillgänglighetsfaktor” bör ändras från ca 9-11 procent till ca 27 procent. Detta kommer därmed, med denna metod, minska ”effekt-bristen” (dvs underskottet enligt den statiska metoden). Med ca 18000 MW vindkraft som totalt förväntas finnas installeras inom de närmaste åren så innebär en tillgänglighetsfaktor om 27.6% istället för den använda nivån 9% en ”effektförstärkning” om 3300 MW. Detta sätt att räkna innebär att man fortsätter anta 90% tillgänglighet för kärnkraften och använder samma percentil för vindkraft och kärnkraft.  Med antagande om att 2014-2023 är en representativ period så blir ”effektbidraget” för vindkraft ca 100 MW/TWh och för kärnkraft ca 124 MW/TWh.

Men denna metod är fortfarande lite märklig då den inte alls beräknar ”effektbrist”, den studerar enbart den extremaste timmen och beaktar inte alls explicit kombinerade sannolikheter för möjlig import etc. Detta kommenterade Svenska Kraftnät redan 2019: ”Denna metod har vissa begränsningar: bara topplasttimmen undersöks, och flöden mellan elområden och länder, samt utländska produktionsresurser beaktas inte. Därför inkluderas nu en probabilistisk metod, som belyser effekttillräckligheten i Sverige på ett annat sätt. Denna typ av modellering för att mäta risken för effekt-brist används på flera håll i världen, bl.a. av ENTSO-E, och det är sannolikt att en sådan metod framöver blir viktigare framöver även för Svenska kraftnät.”

Rekommendationen är att inte alls använda den ”statiska metoden”, då 

a)     Den inte alls beaktar sannolikheter, samt kombinationer av olika händelser, på ett rimligt sätt. Detta innebär att resultaten ofta misstolkas. 

b)     Metoden indikerar ökat behov av import samtidigt som den faktiska importen tvärtom minskat. Detta i sin tur beror just på de antaganden man gjort. Om man använder samma percentil för vindkraften som faktiskt används för kärnkraften, får man inte alls denna minskade tillräcklighet, eller ökande importbehov.

c)     Den ”probabilistiska metoden” är numer standard i EU. Den ger en helt rimlig beskrivning av olika möjligheter och utmaningar. Svenska Kraftnät använder denna metod idag. De rekommendationer som kommit från Energimarknadsinspektionen samt de beslut som tagits av regeringen bygger också helt på denna metod. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2024. p. 25
Keywords
Effektbidrag, vindkraft, kärnkraft, tillgänglighet, kraftbalans
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Research subject
Electrical Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-352490 (URN)
Note

QC 20240903

Available from: 2024-09-03 Created: 2024-09-03 Last updated: 2024-09-03Bibliographically approved
Nordström, H., Söder, L. & Eriksson, R. (2024). Continuous power imbalance assessment from multi-area economic dispatch models. Renewable energy, 225, Article ID 120277.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Continuous power imbalance assessment from multi-area economic dispatch models
2024 (English)In: Renewable energy, ISSN 0960-1481, E-ISSN 1879-0682, Vol. 225, article id 120277Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

To be able to efficiently maintain a continuous balance between supply and demand in power systems with high shares of variable renewable energy (VRE) sources, a variety of studies related to the topic are needed. A fundamental input parameter for such studies is an assessment of the power system's physical needs for balancing power, in form of power imbalances. This article presents a new model for simulating physical power imbalances with a 1-minute time resolution based on multi-area economic dispatch simulations. Compared to existing models with the same purpose, the new model includes the combination of simulating power imbalances with 1-minute time resolution, simulating forecast uncertainty, simulating the continuous behaviour of all power system components and simulating the transmission for netting of power imbalances between balancing areas. By applying the model to a case study of the Nordic synchronous power system in year 2045, the impact of including these features in the model is highlighted. Case study results also show that the size and pattern of power imbalances much depends on the characteristics of a balancing area, in terms of electricity demand, available generation technologies and interconnections to other balancing areas.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier Ltd, 2024
Keywords
Balancing services, Economic dispatch, Future scenarios, Multi-area power system, Power imbalances
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-344596 (URN)10.1016/j.renene.2024.120277 (DOI)001206853100001 ()2-s2.0-85187224508 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20240325

Available from: 2024-03-20 Created: 2024-03-20 Last updated: 2025-10-09Bibliographically approved
Agredano Torres, M., Zhang, M., Söder, L. & Xu, Q. (2024). Decentralized Dynamic Power Sharing Control for Frequency Regulation Using Hybrid Hydrogen Electrolyzer Systems. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, 15(3), 1847-1858
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Decentralized Dynamic Power Sharing Control for Frequency Regulation Using Hybrid Hydrogen Electrolyzer Systems
2024 (English)In: IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, ISSN 1949-3029, E-ISSN 1949-3037, Vol. 15, no 3, p. 1847-1858Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Hydrogen electrolyzers are promising tools for frequency regulation of future power systems with high penetration of renewable energies and low inertia. This is due to both the increasing demand for hydrogen and their flexibility as controllable load. The two main electrolyzer technologies are Alkaline Electrolyzers (AELs) and Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzers (PEMELs). However, they have trade-offs: dynamic response speed for AELs, and cost for PEMELs. This paper proposes the combination of both technologies into a Hybrid Hydrogen Electrolyzer System (HHES) to obtain a fast response for frequency regulation with reduced costs. A decentralized dynamic power sharing control strategy is proposed where PEMELs respond to the fast component of the frequency deviation, and AELs respond to the slow component, without the requirement of communication. The proposed decentralized approach facilitates a high reliability and scalability of the system, what is essential for expansion of hydrogen production. The effectiveness of the proposed strategy is validated in simulations and experimental results.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2024
National Category
Control Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-348840 (URN)10.1109/tste.2024.3381491 (DOI)001252808200047 ()2-s2.0-85189352236 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Energy Agency, 52650-1
Note

QC 20240628

Available from: 2024-06-27 Created: 2024-06-27 Last updated: 2024-07-05Bibliographically approved
Organisations
Identifiers
ORCID iD: ORCID iD iconorcid.org/0000-0002-8189-2420

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