Chitosan is widely used in films for packaging applications. Chitosan reinforcement by stiff particles or fibers is usually obtained at the expense of lowered ductility and toughness. Here, chitosan film reinforcement by a new type of native chitin nanofibers is reported. Films are prepared by casting from colloidal suspensions of chitin in dissolved chitosan. The nanocomposite films are chitin nanofiber networks in chitosan matrix. Characterization is carried out by dynamic light scattering, quartz crystal microbalance, field emission scanning electron microscopy, tensile tests and dynamic mechanical analysis. The nanostructured biocomposite was produced in volume fractions of 0, 8, 22 and 56% chitin nanofibers. Favorable chitin-chitosan synergy for colloidal dispersion is demonstrated. Also, lowered moisture sorption is observed for the composites, probably due to the favorable chitin-chitosan interface. The highest toughness (area under stress-strain curve) was observed at 8 vol% chitin content. The toughening mechanisms and the need for well-dispersed chitin nanofibers is discussed. Finally, desired structural characteristics of ductile chitin biocomposites are discussed.

In this work, di- and triblock copolymers based on poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) have been prepared. The PDMAEMA length was kept constant for both di- and triblock copolymers, while in the diblock copolymers the PCL length was varied in three different lengths, yielding three separate block copolymers. For the triblock blockcopolymers, on the other hand, also the PCL blocks were of the same length yielding one ABA- and one BAB-type block copolymer. In the next step, the PDMAEMA-part was quaternized to yield polyelectrolytes with either one or two charged block(s). In the final step, difference in adsorption behavior onto a negatively charged cellulose surface and subsequent alteration of surface properties was investigated. Overall, the polymers were evaluated in solid state, in solution, in water dispersion, and on cellulose surfaces with techniques including differential scanning calorimetry, size exclusion chromatography, dynamic light scattering and quartz crystal microbalance.

Model layer-by-layer (LbL) assemblies of poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and hyaluronic acid (HA) were fabricated in order to study their wet adhesive behavior. The film characteristics were investigated to understand the inherent structures during the assembly process. Subsequently, the adhesion of these systems was evaluated to understand the correlation between the structure of the film and the energy required to separate these LbL assemblies. We describe how the conditions of the LbL fabrication can be utilized to control the adhesion between films. The characteristics of the film formation are examined in the absence and presence of salt during the film formation. The dependence on contact time and LbL film thickness on the critical pull-off force and work of adhesion are discussed. Specifically, by introducing sodium chloride (NaCl) in the assembly process, the pull-off forces can be increased by a factor of 10 and the work of adhesion by 2 orders of magnitude. Adjusting both the contact time and the film thickness enables control of the adhesive properties within these limits. Based on these results, we discuss how the fabrication procedure can create tailored adhesive interfaces with properties surpassing analogous systems found in nature.

The Layer-by-Layer technique was used to build a polyelectrolyte multilayer on the surface of pulp fibres. The treated fibres were then used to prepare paper sheets and the mechanical properties of these sheets were evaluated as a function of the number of bi-layers on the fibres. Two different systems were studied: polyethyleneimine (PEI)/nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC), and polyallylamine hydrochloride (PAH)/hyaluronic acid (HA). Model experiments using dual polarization interferometry and SiO2 surfaces showed that the two systems gave different thicknesses for a given number of layers. The outer layer was found to be a key parameter in the PEI/NFC system, whereas it was less important in the PAH/HA system. The mechanical properties of the sheets made from the PAH/HA treated fibres were significantly greater than those made from untreated fibres, reaching 70 Nm/g in tensile index and 6.5% in strain at break. Such a modification could be very useful for 3D forming of paper, opening new perspectives in for example the packaging industry, with a renewable and biodegradable product as a potential substitute for some of the traditional oil-based plastics.

The development of clay bionanocomposites requires processing routes with nanostructural control. Moreover, moisture durability is a concern with water-soluble biopolymers. Here, oriented bionanocomposite coatings with strong in-plane orientation of clay platelets are for the first time prepared by continuous water-based processing. Montmorillonite (MTM) and a "new" unmodified biological polymer (xyloglucan (XG)) are combined. The resulting nanocomposites are characterized by FE-SEM, TEM, and XRD. XG adsorption on MTM is measured by quartz crystal microbalance analysis. Mechanical and gas barrier properties are measured, also at high relative humidity. The reinforcement effects are modeled. XG dimensions in composites are estimated using atomistic simulations. The nanostructure shows highly oriented and intercalated clay platelets. The reinforcement efficiency and effects on barrier properties are remarkable and are likely to be due to highly oriented and well-dispersed MTM and strong XG-MTM interactions. Properties are well preserved in humid conditions and the reasons for this are discussed.

In this study, the aim was to prepare and evaluate a block copolymer that can be used as a compatabilizer in cellulose fiber-reinforced biocomposites. It as an amphiphilic block copolymer consisting of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), made with  ring-opening polymerization (ROP), and a shorter segment of poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) that was synthesized with atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The PDMAEMA-part was made in one single length, while the PCL-part was varied in three different lengths; in total were three block copolymers prepared. In the last step of the synthesis, the PDMAEMA-part was quaternized that turns it into a cationically charged chain – a polyelectrolyte. The block copolymers were then able to form cationic micelles in water, from where they can adsorb, under mild conditions, to anionic surfaces such as silicon oxide and cellulose-model surfaces. This provides the surface with a more hydrophobic character shown with contact angle measurements. Finally, with atomic force microscopy (AFM) force measurements, it was demonstrated that there is a clear entanglement behavior obtained between the block copolymers and a PCL surface at about 60 °C, which is of importance for the information regarding the adhesive interface in a future biocomposite.

This work utilizes a combination of theory and experiments to explore the adsorption of two different cationic polyelectrolytes onto oppositely charged silica surfaces at pH 9. Both polymers, poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride), PDADMAC, and poly(4-vinyl N-methylpyridinium iodide), PVNP, are highly charged and highly soluble in water. Another important aspect is that a silica surface carries a relatively high surface charge density at this pH level. This means that we have specifically chosen to investigate adsorption under conditions where electrostatics can be expected to dominate the interactions. Of specific focus in this work is the response of the adsorption to the addition of simple salt (i.e., a process where electrostatics is gradually screened out). Theoretical predictions from a recently developed correlation-corrected classical density functional theory for polyelectrolytes are evaluated by direct quantitative comparisons with corresponding experimental data, as obtained by ellipsometry measurements. We find that, at low concentrations of simple salt, the adsorption increases with ionic strength, reaching a maximum at intermediate levels (about 200 mM). The adsorption then drops but retains a finite level even at very high salt concentrations, indicating the presence of nonelectrostatic contributions to the adsorption. In the theoretical treatment, the strength of this relatively modest but otherwise largely unknown nonelectrostatic surface affinity was estimated by matching predicted and experimental slopes of adsorption curves at high ionic strength. Given these estimates for the nonelectrostatic part, experimental adsorption data are essentially captured with quantitative accuracy by the classical density functional theory.

A growing concern for the environment has, in the past years, directed the research towards a bigger focus on new “greener” materials, such as cellulose-reinforced options. Cellulose is the most abundant organic raw material in the world and it is a versatile material. However, to be able to use it in applications where it is not inherently compatible, a modification is often necessary.^1-3 One common method to achieve this modification is to graft polymers onto/from the cellulose chain. This can change the inherent properties of cellulose to attain new properties, such as dimensional stability and water repellency.³ In addition to this, it has been shown that polyectrolytes can be physiosorbed onto charged surfaces.⁴ Due to this, it is possible to physically modify cellulose by adsorbing a polymer through electrostatic interactions instead of attaching it with a covalent bond.⁵

However, a more detailed investigation concerning differences of covalent and physical attachment of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) onto cellulose, has to the author’s best knowledge not been performed. Therefore, this project aims to compare these two techniques. Covalently bonded PCL was grafted by surface-initiated ring opening polymerization (SI-ROP) from the cellulose. For the adsorption approach, a block copolymer consisting of PCL and a shorter segment of poly(di(methylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) was made combining ROP and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The PDMAEMA-part was then quaternized, which resulted in a cationically charged chain – a polyelectrolyte. This can then be used as an electrostatic linker allowing the PDMAEMA-PCL copolymer to be adsorbed onto the negatively charged cellulose model surface. Finally, differences between the two approaches are evaluated regarding for example surface coverage and grafting/physiosorption efficiency investigated with techniques such as atomic force microscopy (AFM).

In this work, an investigation concerning differences between covalent and physical attachment of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) to a nanocellulose modell surface was conducted. For the covalent attachment, ring-opening polymerization (ROP) was performed using the “grafting-from” approach, building the polymer from the surface. For the physical attachment, a block copolymer consisting of PCL and poly(di(methylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) was made combining ROP and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The PDMAEMA-part was then quaternized, which resulted in a charged chain – a polyelectrolyte. The charges allow for the PDMAEMA-PCL copolymer to be adsorbed onto the nanocellulose modell surface. The length of the PDMAEMA-part was kept constant (DP=20), and the length of PCL was varied (DP=150, 300, 600) for both the covalently attached polymer and for the copolymer. Finally, differences between the two approaches were evaluated regarding for example surface coverage and grafting/physiosorption efficiency investigated with techniques such as atomic force microscopy.