A series of heteroleptic Cu(I) diimine complexes with different ancillary ligands and 6,6'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine-4,4'-dibenzoic acid (dbda) as the anchoring ligand were selfassembled on TiO2 surfaces and used as dyes for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The binding to the TiO2 surface was studied by hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy for a brominecontaining complex, confirming the complex formation. The performance of all complexes was assessed and rationalized on the basis of their respective ancillary ligand. The DSSC photocurrent-voltage characteristics, incident photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE) spectra, and calculated lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) distributions collectively show a push-pull structural dye design, in which the ancillary ligand exhibits an electron-donating effect that can lead to improved solar cell performance. By analyzing the optical properties of the dyes and their solar cell performance, we can conclude that the presence of ancillary ligands with bulky substituents protects the Cu(I) metal center from solvent coordination constituting a critical factor in the design of efficient Cu(I)-based dyes. Moreover, we have identified some components in the I-/I-3(-)-based electrolyte that causes dissociation of the ancillary ligand, i.e., TiO2 photoelectrode bleaching. Finally, the detailed studies on one of the dyes revealed an electrolyte-dye interaction, leading to a dramatic change of the dye properties when adsorbed on the TiO2 surface.

A new crosslinked polymer, called P65, with appropriate photo-electrochemical, opto-electronic, and thermal properties, has been designed and synthesized as an efficient, dopant-free, hole-transport material (HTM) for n-i-p type planar perovskite solar cells (PSCs). P65 is obtained from a low-cost and easily synthesized spiro[fluorene-9,9′-xanthene]-3′,6′-diol (SFX-OH)-based monomer X65 through a free-radical polymerization reaction. The combination of a three-dimensional (3D) SFX core unit, hole-transport methoxydiphenylamine group, and crosslinked polyvinyl network provides P65 with good solubility and excellent film-forming properties. By employing P65 as a dopant-free hole-transport layer in conventional n-i-p type PSCs, a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of up to 17.7% is achieved. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time a 3D, crosslinked, polymeric dopant-free HTM has been reported for use in conventional n-i-p type PSCs. This study provides a new strategy for the future development of a 3D crosslinked polymeric dopant-free HTM with a simple synthetic route and low-cost for commercial, large-scale applications in future PSCs.

Inkjet printing emerged as an alternative deposition method to spin coating in the field of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with the potential of scalable, low-cost, and no-waste manufacturing. In this study, the materials TiO2, SrTiO3, and SnO2 were inkjet-printed as electron transport layers (ETLs), and the PSC performance based on these ETLs was optimized by adjusting the ink preparation methods and printing processes. For the mesoporous ETLs inkjet-printed from TiO2 and SrTiO3 nanoparticle inks, the selection of solvents for dispersing nanoparticles was found to be important and a cosolvent system is beneficial for the film formation. Meanwhile, to overcome the low current density and severe hysteresis in SrTiO3-based devices, mixed mesoporous SrTiO3/TiO2 ETLs were also investigated. In addition, inkjet-printed SnO2 thin films were fabricated by using a cosolvent system and the effect of the SnO2 ink concentrations on the device performance was investigated. In comparison with PSCs based on TiO2 and SrTiO3 ETLs, the SnO2-based devices offer an optimal power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 17.37% in combination with a low hysteresis. This work expands the range of suitable ETL materials for inkjet-printed PSCs and promotes the commercial applications of inkjet printing techniques in PSC manufacturing.

Long-term stability is an essential requirement for perovskite solar cells to be commercially viable. Encapsulating 3D perovskites with 2D perovskite structures is an effective strategy for improving resistance to moisture. However, long-chain alkylammonium cation-based 2D perovskites have been rarely studied in solar cells. Here, we study three different alkyl chain length organic cation-based 2D perovskite coatings for 3D perovskites. The 2D perovskite incorporated solar cells show significant improvement in solar cell stability with limited compromise in solar cell efficiency, with the longest alkyl chain length sample showing only a 20% drop in power conversion efficiency after 6 months at a relative humidity of 25-80%, and could be completely immersed in water for a few minutes before degradation started. The 2D perovskite coating also mitigated non-radiative recombination in the light-absorbing 3D perovskite, leading to an enhancement in the open circuit voltage. These findings suggest that long-chain alkylammonium cation based 2D perovskites can improve the environmental stability of 3D based perovskites without significant losses to device performance. Moisture resistance is vital for commercializing perovskite solar cells. Here, long-chain alkylammonium cation-based 2D perovskites are used to coat 3D perovskite, enabling stable performance for six months with only a 20 % drop in power conversion efficiency.

Energy plays a significant role in our daily lives, but most energy provided by fossil fuels causes serious environmental problems including air pollution, global warming, and ecological damage. In addition, it has been estimated that all of our fossil fuels will run out in 2088 and thus it is highly important to study and apply renewable energy sources. Among all the alternatives, solar energy is clean, sustainable, and abundant. It is estimated that the amount of power from the sun that strikes the earth in 90 minutes is more than the entire world consumes in one year. The perovskite solar cell (PSC) is one of the strongest tools to utilize solar energy because of its high power conversion efficiency and easy fabrication process. However, the lead that is normally used in the perovskite layer is considered harmful to the environment and to human health. Moreover, the low conductivity and hole mobility of the hole-transport material (HTM) Spiro-OMeTAD and the low overall device stability against humidity are all issues that might hinder the further development of PSC technology. This thesis concerns all of these aspects, with a general focus on different functional materials.

The aim of this thesis was to develop environmentally friendly and low-cost functional materials in order to solve existing problems while at the same time revealing insights into carrier transport, molecular doping, and surface passivation.

In Chapter 1 and Chapter 2, the current status of PSCs and the experimental and theoretical methods used in this thesis are presented.

In Chapter 3, the properties of coordination complexes, including molybdenum clusters and polyiodide-linked gold complexes, and their potential application in solar cells as lead-free light absorbers are discussed.

In Chapter 4, the synthesis of four coordination complexes with different metal cores and ligands and their application as HTMs in PSCs is discussed. Their oxidation potential, hole mobility, conductivity, and packing methods are presented.

In Chapter 5, two p-type dopants – Cu(bpcm)₂ and (MeO-TPD)TFSI – are introduced for the organic HTM Spiro-OMeTAD. Both of these could significantly increase the conductivity of Spiro-OMeTAD films. In addition, (MeO-TPD)TFSI could work separately without hygroscopic LiTFSI at high doping amounts thus potentially increasing the device’s stability. The structure of oxidized Spiro-OMeTAD on the base of the Spiro(TFSI)₂ is also discussed.

In Chapter 6, density functional theory modeling of four different functional groups – including amino (−NH₂), phosphine (−PH₂), hydroxyl (−OH), and thiol (−SH) groups – in combination with polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane is discussed in terms of estimating the adsorption energy with respect to different perovskite surface models. The amino functional group showed the strongest adsorption energy and was further compared with the thiol group in experiments.

Energi spelar en avgörande roll i vårt vardagliga liv. Dessvärre kommer den allra största delen av den energi som tillhandahålls från fossila bränslen, vilka orsakar allvarliga miljöproblem såsom luftföroreningar, global uppvärmning och ekologiska skador. Dessutom finns det uppskattningar som för fram påståenden om att resurserna av fossila bränslen kommer att sina kring 2088, vilket sammantaget understryker behovet av att undersöka och implementera förnybar energi. Bland alternativen återfinns solenergi, vilken ren, hållbar och rikligt tillgänglig. I jämförelse kan det konstateras att den energi som motsvarar ca 1,5 timmes solljus som träffar jordens yta motsvarar en hel årsförbrukning för hela världen. Perovskitsolceller (PSC) utgör en mycket lovande ny teknik för att kunna utnyttja solens energi grundat på deras höga omvandlingseffektivitet tillsammans med enkla tillverkningsprocesser. Dessvärre innehåller perovskitsolcellerna det giftiga grundämnet bly, vilket är skadligt för både miljö och människa. Dessutom är perovskitsolcellerna beroende av omgivande material för att de ska nå höga prestanda, och även dessa är behäftade med problem. Håltransportmaterialet (HTM) Spiro-OMeTAD är förknippat med en inneboende låg ledningsförmåga och känslighet mot fukt. Detta påverkar perovskitsolcellernas stabilitet och utgör ett hinder för vidare utveckling mot en kommersialisering. Den här avhandlingen är fokuserad mot olika funktionella material för perovskitsolceller.

Målet med denna avhandling är att utveckla miljövänliga och billiga funktionella material, vilka kan bidra till att lösa perovskitsolcellernas existerande problem och samtidigt ge insikter om effekterna av laddningstransport, dopning och ytpassivering.

I kapitel 1 och 2 presenteras en statusöversikt för PSC, liksom de experimentella och teoretiska metoder som använts i denna avhandling.

Kapitel 3 ägnas åt implementeringen av nya bly-fria koordinationsföreningar i solceller exemplifierat med två system; molybdenbaserade kluster och polyjodidlänkade guldkomplex. Målet med dessa studier var att identifiera helt nya och bly-fria ljusabsorbenter.

Kapitel 4 ägnas åt studier av fyra nya koordinationsföreningar som HTM till PSC. Dessa omfattar olika metalljoner som koordinationscentra och studerades systematiskt rörande redoxpotentialer, hål-mobilitet, ledningsförmåga samt molekylära packningsmönster.

Kapitel 5 omfattar studier av två nya p-typ dopningsmaterial för organiska hålledare baserade på Cu(bpcm)₂ och (MeO-TPD)TFSI. Båda ökar markant ledningsförmågan hos Spiro-OMeTAD. (MeO-TPD)TFSI fungerar dessutom effektivt vid höga koncentrationer utan tillsatser av det hygroskopiska saltet LiTFSI, och detta leder till en tydligt bättre stabilitet hos de resulterande solcellerna. Strukturen hos oxiderad Sprio-OMeTAD resp Spiro(TFSI)₂ har analyserats.

I kapiltel 6 undersöks slutligen effekterna av polyhedrala oligomera silsesquioxaner (POSS) med en serie av funktionella sidoarmar terminerade med amin- (−NH₂), fosfin (−PH₂), hydroxyl (−OH), and tiol (−SH) –grupper. Dessa har undersökts både teoretiskt med hjälp av täthetsfunktionalteori (DFT) för att uppskatta de olika systemens adsorptionsenergier tillsammans med effekter på solceller. POSS-systemen terminerade med amingrupper uppvisade starkast adsorption och tydligast stabiliserande effekter.

The low-lying energy spectrum of the extremely neutron-deficient self-conjugate (N = Z) nuclide 88Ru has been measured using the combination of the Advanced Gamma Tracking Array (AGATA)spectrometer, the NEDA, and Neutron Wall neutron detector arrays, and the DIAMANT charged particle detector array. Excited states in 88 Ru were populated via the 54 Feð 36 Ar; 2nγÞ 88 Ru fusion-evaporationreaction at the Grand Accélérateur National d’Ions Lourds (GANIL) accelerator complex. The observed γ-ray cascade is assigned to 88 Ru using clean prompt γ-γ-2-neutron coincidences in anticoincidence with the detection of charged particles, confirming and extending the previously assigned sequence of low-lying excited states. It is consistent with a moderately deformed rotating system exhibiting a band crossing at a rotational frequency that is significantly higher than standard theoretical predictions with isovector pairing, as well as observations in neighboring N > Z nuclides. The direct observation of such a “delayed” rotational alignment in a deformed N 1⁄4 Z nucleus is in agreement with theoretical predictions related to the presence of strong isoscalar neutron-proton pair correlations.

Despite the ubiquity and importance of organic hole-transport materials in photovoltaic devices, their intrinsic low conductivity remains a drawback. Thus, chemical doping is an indispensable solution to this drawback and is essentially always required. The most widely used p-type dopant, FK209, is a cobalt coordination complex. By reducing Co(III) to Co(II), Spiro-OMeTAD becomes partially oxidized, and the film conductivity is initially increased. In order to further increase the conductivity, the hygroscopic co-dopant LiTFSI is typically needed. However, lithium salts are normally quite hygroscopic, and thus, water absorption has been suggested as a significant reason for perovskite degradation and therefore limited device stability. In this work, we report a LiTFSI-free doping process by applying organic salts in relatively high amounts. The film conductivity and morphology have been studied at different doping amounts. The resulting solar cell devices show comparable power conversion efficiencies to those based on conventional LiTFSI-doped Spiro-OMeTAD but show considerably better long-term device stability in an ambient atmosphere.

Single crystals of Spiro(TFSI)2 were grown, the optical and electronic properties were characterized and compared with neutral Spiro-OMeTAD. Density-functional theory was used to get insights into binding and band structure properties. The flat valence bands indicate a rather limited orbital overlap in Spiro(TFSI)2.

Due to ligand scrambling, the synthesis and investigation of the properties of heteroleptic Cu(I) complexes can be a challenging task. In this work, we have studied the optical and electrochemical properties of a series of homoleptic complexes, such as [Cu(dbda)(2)](+), [Cu(dmp)(2)](+), [Cu(Br-dmp)(2)](+), [Cu(bcp)(2)](+), [Cu(dsbtmp)(2)](+), [Cu(biq)(2)](+), and [Cu(dap)(2)](+) in solution, and those of their heteroleptics [Cu(dbda)(dmp)](+), [Cu(dbda)(Br-dmp)](+), [Cu(dbda)(bcp)](+), [Cu(dbda)(dsbtmp))(+), [Cu(dbda)(biq)](+), [Cu(dbda)(dap)](+) adsorbed on the surface of anatase TiO2 (dbda = 6,6'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine-4,4'-dibenzoic acid; dmp = 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline; Br-dmp = 5-bromo 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline; bcp = bathocuproine or 2,9-dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline; dsbtmp = 2,9-di(sec-butyl)-3,4,7,8-tetramethyl-1,10-phenanthroline; biq = 2,2'-biquinoline; dap = 2,9-dianisyl-1,10-phenanthroline). We show that the maximum absorption wavelengths of the heteroleptic complexes on TiO2 can be reasonably predicted from those of the homoleptic complexes in solution through a simple linear relation, whereas the prediction of their redox properties is less trivial. In the latter case, two different linear patterns emerge: one including the ligands bcp, biq, and dap and another one including the ligands dmp, Br-dmp, and dsbtmp. We offer an interpretation of the data based on the chemical structure of the ligands. On one hand, ligands bcp, biq, and dap possess a more extended pi-conjugated system, which gives a more prominent contribution to the overall redox properties of the ligand dbda. On the other hand, the ligands dmp, Br-dmp, and dsbtmp are all phenanthroline-based containing alkyl substituents and contribute less than dbda to the overall redox properties.

Carbazole is a promising core for the molecular design of hole-transport materials (HTMs) for solid-state mesoscopic solar cells (ssMSCs), such as solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells (ssDSSCs) and perovskite solar cells (PSCs) due to its low cost and excellent optoelectronic properties of its derivatives. Although carbazole-based HTMs are intensely investigated in ssMSCs and promising device performance is demonstrated, the fundamental understanding of the impact of linking topology on the properties of carbazole-based HTMs is lacking. Herein, the effect of the linking topology on the optical and electronic properties of a series of carbazole-based HTMs with 2,7-substitution and 3,6-substitution is systematically investigated. The results demonstrate that the 2,7-substituted carbazole-based HTMs display higher hole mobility and conductivity among this series of analogous molecules, thereby exhibiting better device performance. In addition, the conductivity of the HTMs is improved after light treatment, which explains the commonly observed light-soaking phenomenon of ssMSCs in general. All these carbazole-based HTMs are successfully applied in ssMSCs and one of the HTMs X50-based devices yield a promising efficiency of 6.8% and 19.2% in ssDSSCs and PSCs, respectively. This study provides guidance for the molecular design of effective carbazole-based HTMs for high-performance ssMSCs and related electronic devices.