As a way of decreasing car ownership and use, one of the significant causes of road passenger transport-related emissions, a growing number of municipalities in Sweden and globally promote car- and bike-sharing by implementing Flexible Parking Requirements. Evaluations of how these requirements affect mobility patterns among residents are emerging. Still, research on the implications for the carsharing and bike-sharing business models and overall service development is lacking. This paper aims to address this by investigating how the development of car- and bike-sharing services is affected by Flexible Parking Requirements. We study four cases based on mobility service providers and specific properties in Sweden through the lens of business model literature and actor-network theory. The results uncover specific narratives, assemblages and challenges related to each case. The carsharing services highlighted the difference in success between open-access and exclusive residential mobility services. Bike-sharing services were characterized by diverse weaknesses and threats that must be addressed for functioning services. The results indicate Flexible Parking Requirements being an important actant of change in defining the services offerings and shaping assemblages. A plethora of actants is identified in the assemblage around car- and bike-sharing services. The paper helps to identify the missing pieces in aligning all of them to have persistence and lasting services. In the concluding discussion, the new roles of the apartment blocks and residential mobility services are discussed within the transport system.

Cities around the world are trying to understand if and how to regulate urban mobility in a way that stimulates innovation and supports business while also promoting public values and accelerating a sustainability transition. Service providers are also attempting to understand how to grow and thrive as a business as they challenge existing urban mobility structures and practices via new mobility services, new uses of public space, etc. Thus, this article seeks to understand the interplay between business models and public policies and, ultimately, the implications policy instruments have on shaping conditions for sustainable urban mobility. To address these questions, a qualitative approach is utilized, comprising case studies of two 'new mobility' service providers (Bolt and Tier) operating in three Northern European cities (Oslo, Stockholm, and Berlin) including interviews with these companies and local public actors. Findings show that the business models are influenced by legitimization on the national level, the local authorities' and service providers' approaches, and policy instruments related to the right to operate, including caps, geographic coverage, parking, geofencing, and data sharing. Utilizing business models and multi-level perspectives, the findings are discussed in relation to actualizing sustainable transport, e.g. interdependencies, goal alignment, and temporal and spatial considerations. The authors emphasize the importance of learning by doing, policy mixes (versus instruments), and purpose-driven collaboration among stakeholders.

The transport sector plays a crucial role in society; it not only influences daily commuting but also occupies a significant place in the economic system while being one of the main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. Road passenger transport, heavily reliant upon private cars, is a particularly dominant factor in domestic emissions in Sweden. Strategies to mitigate these effects involve transitioning to more environmentally friendly technologies and promoting a transport-efficient society. This thesis focuses on the need to shift towards more energy-efficient means of transport, which entails replacing trips previously made with individual private cars with alternative mobility options such as shared mobility services.

Although still a relatively new phenomenon, shared mobility is rapidly growing and disrupting urban environments worldwide. Predominantly owned and operated by private actors, shared mobility services lie at the intersection of private ambitions and public needs to reduce private car dependency. These services present both new opportunities and challenges for society and public authorities. Therefore, this thesis aims to deepen the understanding of shared mobility services and explore how they can support the transition towards a transport-efficient society.

The thesis investigates shared mobility services by integrating insights from transport research with concepts and theories from business management, specifically business model interpretations. A key aspect of this analysis is embedding these services within an external environment such as the policy context to explore interdependencies. The qualitative research is based primarily on case studies which used semi-structured interviews and workshops to acquire rich empirical data for analysis. The multi-level perspective and actor-network theory are identified as relevant theoretical frameworks for this research.

The results are structured around research questions that (i) focus on interdependencies between business models and regulations, (ii) explore the possible contributions the sustainable business model research field could make in the creation of more sustainable shared mobility services, and (iii) showcase what is necessary for these services to contribute to a transport-efficient society. The thesis proposes that simplification and overlooking the diversity of shared mobility services hamper the development and integration of such services within the transportation system. From the transition perspective, the results show that different shared mobility services have moved from filling niche positions to entering established regimes, which leads to the disruption and transformation of different regime elements within them. While this creates destabilisation and opens up a window of opportunity, it does not result in a full transition into the new regime. There is also a chicken-and-egg problem regarding shared mobility services and the governance of these services. This means that a lack of knowledge hampers the integration of such services into the transport systems, but without experimentation and integration, new knowledge about these services cannot be gained. The dismissal of shared mobility services leads to alternative ways of operating, which do not always have the most sustainable outcomes. Finally, this licentiate thesis demonstrates that the nature of shared mobility services blurs the sharp division between established actor networks and responsibilities, which then become ill-suited to address new innovative services.

Transportsektorn spelar en avgörande roll i vårt samhälle, då den inte bara påverkar daglig pendling utan också har en betydande plats i det ekonomiska systemet samtidigt som den är en av de främsta bidragsgivarna till utsläpp av växthusgaser. Särskilt vägtransport av passagerare, som är starkt beroende av privata bilar, är en dominerande faktor för de inhemska utsläppen i Sverige. Strategier för att mildra dessa effekter innebär en övergång till mer miljövänliga teknologier och att främja ett transporteffektivt samhälle. Denna avhandling fokuserar på behovet av att övergå till mer energieffektiva transportmedel, vilket innebär att ersätta resor som tidigare gjordes med privata bilar med alternativa mobilitetslösningar, såsom delade mobilitetstjänster.

Även om delad mobilitet fortfarande är ett relativt nytt fenomen växer det snabbt och omvandlar urbana miljöer över hela världen. Delade mobilitetstjänster, som främst ägs och drivs av privata aktörer, befinner sig i skärningspunkten mellan privata ambitioner och samhällets behov av att minska beroendet av privatbilism. Dessa tjänster innebär både nya möjligheter och utmaningar för samhället och offentliga myndigheter. Därför syftar denna avhandling till att fördjupa förståelsen för delade mobilitetstjänster och undersöka hur dessa tjänster kan stödja övergången till ett transporteffektivt samhälle.

Avhandlingen undersöker delade mobilitetstjänster genom att integrera insikter från transportforskning med koncept och teorier från företagsekonomi, särskilt affärsmodelltolkningar. En viktig del av denna analys är att integrera dessa tjänster i en extern miljö, såsom en politisk kontext, för att undersöka ömsesidiga beroenden. Den kvalitativa forskningen är främst baserad på fallstudier, där semi-strukturerade intervjuer och workshops ger rik empirisk data för analys. Multi-Level Perspective och Actor-Network Theory identifieras som relevanta teoretiska ramar för denna forskning.

Resultaten är strukturerade kring forskningsfrågor som (i) fokuserar på beroendeförhållanden mellan affärsmodeller och regleringar, (ii) utforskar möjliga bidrag som forskningsfältet för hållbara affärsmodeller kan ge för att skapa mer hållbara delade mobilitetstjänster, och (iii) visar vad som krävs för att dessa tjänster ska kunna bidra till ett transporteffektivt samhälle. Avhandlingen föreslår att förenkling och förbiseende av mångfalden bland delade mobilitetstjänster hindrar utvecklingen och integrationen av sådana tjänster inom transportsystemet. Ur ett transitionperspektiv visar resultaten att olika delade mobilitetstjänster har gått från att fylla nischpositioner till att träda in i etablerade regimer, vilket leder till störningar och omvandlingar av olika regimelement inom dessa. Samtidigt som detta skapar instabilitet och öppnar ett fönster för möjligheter, resulterar det inte i en fullständig övergång till den nya regimen. Det finns även ett "kyckling-och-ägget"-problem gällande delade mobilitetstjänster och styrningen av dessa tjänster. Detta innebär att brist på kunskap hämmar integrationen av sådana tjänster i transportsystemen, men utan experimentering och integration kan ny kunskap om dessa tjänster inte erhållas. Avfärdandet av delade mobilitetstjänster leder till alternativa sätt att operera som inte alltid har de mest hållbara resultaten. Slutligen visar denna licentiatuppsats att karaktären av delade mobilitetstjänster suddar ut den skarpa uppdelningen mellan etablerade aktörsnätverk och ansvar, vilket gör dem mindre lämpade att hantera nya innovativa tjänster.

To meet internationally agreed climate protection targets, a drastic reduction of passenger transport greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is required. The “Avoid-Shift-Improve”-Approach suggests to meet future transport demand by avoiding unnecessary travel, shifting travel to more environmentally-friendly transport modes and improving the environmental performance of transport modes. Digital applications can contribute to both an increase or a decrease of passenger transport GHG emissions, e.g. by avoiding travel, increasing travel or shifting travel to more GHG-intensive or GHG-efficient transport modes. In view of the large number of digital applications in passenger transport and their uncertain impacts on GHG emissions, the aim of this report is to present a review of (1) digital technologies that are used in passenger transport, (2) applications that are supported by digital technologies and (3) their potential impacts on GHG emissions.

We identified nine central categories of digital technologies that shape passenger transport, namely (mobile) end user devices and apps, telecommunication networks, cloud computing, artificial intelligence and big data, geospatial technologies, digital sensors, computer graphics, automation and robotics and blockchain. These technologies support various applications in passenger transport which can be categorized into digital traveler information systems (e.g. trip planning and booking apps), digital shared mobility services (e.g. car or ride sharing), digitally-enabled transport modes that would not exist without digital technologies (e.g. virtual mobility, taxi drones), digital in-vehicle applications (e.g. automated driving), and digital applications for traffic and infrastructure management (e.g. traffic simulations and mobility pricing).

All described applications can have reducing and increasing effects on GHG emissions. Main levers to reduce GHG emissions are (1) a reduction of number of vehicles produced (e.g. through vehicle sharing), (2) a reduction of total travel distances (e.g. through virtual mobility), (3) an increase in the attractiveness of and shift to more GHG-efficient transport modes (e.g. through multimodal mobility platforms), (4) an increase in the utilization of transport modes and a reduction of vehicle kilometers traveled (e.g. through ride sharing), and (5) an increase in the fuel efficiency of vehicles (e.g. through automated driving systems).

In a real-life setting, the impacts of digital applications depend on the interplay between the applications and their design, existing travel patterns and the policy framework in place. In order put digital applications in passenger transport at the service of climate protection, applications and policies have to be aligned in a way that they promote GHG reducing levers. Otherwise, there is a risk that these applications lead to an increase in GHG emissions, e.g. by inducing additional travel or promoting more GHG-intensive transport modes.

Future research should empirically assess the impacts of digital applications on passenger transport and identify the conditions under which decarbonization potentials will materialize. This will support policy makers and market actors to jointly create conditions under which offering digital applications in passenger transport contributes to a net GHG emission reduction and is economically-feasible.

The transport, electricity and telecommunication systems, also known as utilities, are under pressure from disruptive technologies, climate change and even unexpected health disasters. Questions related to demand management and safeguarding the functioning of the system are an important part of handling these pressures. In terms of road transport more specifically, the practices currently in use have been unsuccessful in flattening the demand curve or shifting the demand to more sustainable and space-efficient modes of travel. Therefore, the need for new input in the transport sector regarding demand management is higher than ever before. This report is intended to provide new insights for the transport sector based on the practices and methods for managing fluctuating demand found in other sectors, which can be translated into the following research question: What can the road transport sector learn about demand management practices from the electricity and telecom sectors? The analytical framework used for data collection and analysis is based on and combines the socio-technical theory of large technical systems (LTS) with the multi-level perspective (MLP) on sustainable transition into the infrastructure lifecycle model (ILM) introduced by Bolton and Foxon (2015). The findings are divided into three sections: road transport, electricity and telecom, and a matrix summarizing the identified practices and tools in use is provided at the end of each section. The concluding section is structured into specific learnable moments/new insights, providing an overview and discussion of all three systems in parallel with the help of the ILM. These moments include real-time monitoring and interventions, activating end users to make better-informed decisions, and public-private participation in planning and development. The report concludes with suggestions for future research.

The fourth industrial revolution is disrupting almost every industry in every country and the transport sector is not an exception in this discussion, with increasing mobility demands and evolving mobility needs in consideration of global sustainability goals. In light of these technological changes and discussions, public authorities are on the path of transition and the role of public transport authorities is still unclear for themselves, for business or even for society at large. This issue extends to transport data policies as there is still a lack a general overview concerning what pathways different cities are working on and implementing. Therefore, this study, as a part of Swedish research programme Mistra SAMS, aims to provide an overview of policies and the management of data connected with the transport sector in four selected city regions: Helsinki, London, Oslo and Singapore. Three research questions have been examined: 1. How do different transport authorities in urban regions approach transport data and perceive the value of data? 2. What kind of action plan is being implemented to create the public value of transport data within the public authorities? 3. How is all of this reflected in collaboration with third parties? Institutional theory is used in the multi-case analysis to guide the collection of data through document analysis and semi-structured interviews and provides a framework for analysis and structuring of the findings. The findings showcased different approaches to data and overall themes in the institutional context in different regions, which included themes such as policies, administrative reforms, technology, interoperability, partnerships and transport data repository. The final discussion identifies two main development paths: technology-led development and other mobility concept-led development. All regions work actively with transport data management, although each builds their approach on different ideas and practices. The proactive role of the public sector in regulating and implementing new technologies is discussed for each of the urban regions. Partnerships between the public and private sectors are more developed in the urban regions with technology-led development. The study outlines key areas of future research, like the role of public authorities, the importance of public-private partnerships, questions related to the digitalization and interoperability.

 In transportation, shared mobility services disrupt the transport sector and affect travel patterns. These services are both praised as a possible solution to achieve more sustainable transportation systems and as a source of negative impacts by replacing active mobility and increasing total transport demand. There have been multiple attempts to categorise, and structure shared mobility services, but less attention is paid to understanding what constitutes sustainable business models in the context of urban mobility and providing tools for policymakers. In this article, we propose a sector-specific framework for shared mobility business models that supports private and public actors’ decision-making and accelerates service integration into the transport system. With the help of morphological analysis (MA), we structured different business model elements associated with mobility services and sustainable business models into a comprehensible morphological box and then tested it against three different empirical datasets. Based on empirical data, the framework is further elaborated on the selected attributes, and we introduce an additional dimension of external factors relevant to sustainable mobility services. 

 As a way of decreasing car ownership and use - one of the significant causes of road passenger transport-related emissions - a growing number of municipalities in Sweden and globally promote car- and bike-sharing by implementing Flexible Parking Requirements. Evaluations of how these requirements affect mobility patterns among residents are emerging. Still, research on the implications for the carsharing and bike-sharing business models and overall service development is lacking. This paper aims to address this by investigating how the development of car- and bike-sharing services is affected by Flexible Parking Requirements. We study four cases based on mobility service providers and specific properties in Sweden through the lens of business model literature and actor-network theory. The results uncover specific narratives, assemblages and challenges related to each case. The carsharing services showcase the difference in success between open-access and exclusive residential mobility services. Bike-sharing services are characterised by diverse weaknesses and threats that must be addressed for functioning services. The results indicate Flexible Parking Requirements being an important actant of change in defining the service offerings and shaping assemblages. A plethora of actants are identified in the assemblage around car- and bike-sharing services. The paper helps to identify the missing pieces in aligning all of them to have persistence and lasting services. In the concluding discussion, the new roles of the apartment blocks and residential mobility services are discussed within the transport system.