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Exploring societal impacts of self-driving public transport using four-step transport models
KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Centres, Integrated Transport Research Lab, ITRL.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6986-972x
2022 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

During the last decade, self-driving technology has become increasingly visible in the news, with the vision that people would enter vehicles that drive themselves, and that people could instead rest, read the newspaper, or have a meeting. However, these visions have mainly focused on the potential for car usage, even though public transport could benefit greatly from self-driving technology. For bus traffic, the bus driver accounts for half of the cost of driving, and savings on personnel costs could, for example, be reinvested in expanded public transport service or used to lower taxes.

At the same time, more research has shown potential problems linked to self-driving technology, for example that more comfortable driving would lead to more traffic, which in turn would lead to increased emissions, higher noise levels in cities or further focus on car-centric infrastructure. For public transport, the driver's role in creating safety and acting as problem solvers has also been emphasized - who should I ask for directions if there is no knowledgeable driver on board?

Various methods have previously been used to explore the social effects of self-driving technology and in this dissertation I have used so-called "four-stage models", more specifically the Swedish transport model Sampers. Four-stage models have been used for 50 years to evaluate effects on the transport system from e.g. infrastructure changes, but these models face new challenges, handling vehicles that drive by themselves. In my research, I have adjusted the model to simulate self-driving technology and investigated what effects this has on, for example, traffic volumes and emissions.

In the three articles that are part of the dissertation, I have four main conclusions:

  • Self-driving technology can mean large savings in costs for public transport, primarily for bus traffic but also to some extent for rail traffic. In addition, a smoother driving behaviour would mean more comfortable travel, which would increase the attractiveness of public transport. In addition, public transport not limited by, for example, driver schedules or current commercial conditions, could develop new types of services, such as on-demand public transport.
  • Four-stage models have previously been used to model the transport system and have been shown to have good results, at least at an overall level. Within my research, I have made some adaptations of these models to mimic self-driving technology, but the models in their current form cannot consider, for example, vehicle sharing.
  • It is important to point out that bus and train drivers currently perform many tasks that are not directly related to the driving of the vehicle, such as answering questions, maintaining social order among passengers and taking care of faults that occur during the trip. Today, self-driving technology cannot fulfil these roles.
  • Self-driving technology for public transport would affect people's accessibility, driving style for vehicles, safety on board, how we plan traffic and the people who currently work as drivers. In fact, a multitude of societal effects have been identified, affecting all areas of transport. In addition, the effects are generally not similar across geographies, time units or for different actors, which further emphasizes that the total effect is not easy to summarize.
Abstract [sv]

Självkörande teknik har under det senast decenniet synts allt mer i media, med målet att människor ska slippa köra själv på väg till jobbet, och istället kunna vila, läsa tidningen eller hålla ett möte. Dessa visioner har dock i huvudsak fokuserat på just bilen, trots att kollektivtrafiken skulle kunna dra stor nytta av självkörande teknik. För busstrafik står bussföraren för hälften av kostnaden för att köra trafiken, och besparingar på personalkostnader skulle t ex kunna återinvesteras i mer utökad kollektivtrafik, lägre skatter eller utökad välfärd inom andra områden.

Samtidigt så har alltmer forskning visat på potentiella problem kopplat till självkörande teknik, exempelvis att den mer bekväma körningen skulle leda till mer trafik som i sin tur leder till mer utsläpp, höjda bullernivåer i städer eller ytterligare fokus på bilcentrerad infrastruktur. För kollektivtrafiken har även förarens roll som trygghetsskapande och som problemlösare lyfts fram – vem ska jag fråga om vägen om det inte finns en kunnig förare ombord? 

Olika metoder har tidigare använts för att utforska samhällseffekterna av självkörande teknik, i den här avhandlingen har jag använt mig av så kallade ”fyrstegsmodeller”, mer specifikt den svenska transportmodellen Sampers. Fyrstegsmodeller har använts i uppemot 50 år för att utvärdera effekter på transportsystemet, men har ställts inför nya krav på att hantera fordon som körs av sig själva. Inom min forskning har jag gjort anpassningar av modellen för att simulera självkörande teknik och undersökt vilka effekter detta får på t ex trafikvolymer och utsläpp.

I de tre vetenskapliga artiklarna som är del av avhandlingen har jag kommit fram till fyra huvudsakliga slutsatser:

  • Självkörande teknik kan innebära stora besparingar i kostnader för kollektivtrafiken, i första hand för busstrafik men även i viss mån för spårtrafik. Därutöver skulle en mer jämn körstil innebära bekvämare resor, vilket skulle öka kollektivtrafikens attraktionskraft. Därutöver kan kollektivtrafik som inte begränsas av t ex förarscheman eller nuvarande kommersiella villkor kunna innebära nya tjänster, såsom efterfrågestyrd (”on-demand”) kollektivtrafik. 
  • Fyrstegsmodeller har tidigare använts för att modellera transportsystemet och visat sig ha god överenstämmelse med verkligheten, åtminstone på övergripande nivå. Inom ramen för min forskning har jag gjort anpassningar av Sampers för att efterlikna självkörande teknik, men modellerna kan i sin nuvarande form inte ta hänsyn till t ex delande av fordon. 
  • Det är viktigt att påpeka att förare idag utför många uppgifter som inte direkt är kopplade till framförandet av fordonet, såsom att svara på frågor, upprätthålla ordning bland resenärer och att ta hand om fel som uppstår på fordonet. Dessa roller kan självkörande teknik idag inte uppfylla. 
  • De samhällseffekter som identifierats är överlag varierande och mångfaldiga. Självkörande teknik för kollektivtrafik skulle påverka människors tillgänglighet, körstilen för fordonen, tryggheten ombord, hur vi planerar trafiken och de personer som idag arbetar som förare. Dessutom är effekterna generellt sett inte likartade över geografi, tidsenhet eller för olika aktörer, vilket ytterligare understryker att effekten inte är enkel att sammanfatta. 
Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm, Sweden: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2022. , p. 65
Series
TRITA-ITM-AVL ; 2022:18
Keywords [en]
Self-driving vehicles, Public transport, Four-step transport model, Societal impacts, Sampers
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics
Research subject
Machine Design
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-312391ISBN: 978-91-8040-267-5 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-312391DiVA, id: diva2:1658722
Presentation
2022-06-07, Integrated Transport Research Lab / https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/69238467735, Drottning Kristinas Väg 40, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2022-05-17 Created: 2022-05-17 Last updated: 2024-05-20Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Will public transport be relevant in a self-driving future? A demand model simulation of four scenarios for Stockholm, Sweden
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Will public transport be relevant in a self-driving future? A demand model simulation of four scenarios for Stockholm, Sweden
2020 (English)In: Transportation Research Procedia 49, Association for European Transport , 2020, Vol. 49, p. 60-69Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

The public sector makes long-term investments in for example tram rail lines and highways based on forecasts of future travelling but generally do not consider the impacts of self-driving technology as a factor. Several papers have presented transport system wide simulations with self-driving cars, exploring changes in mode choice, energy demand or the potential for sharing. Demand traffic models have been used in several studies, looking at modal choice changes, but the general assumption is that the public transport service remains unchanged, despite a large potential for governments to enhance service or reduce costs. This paper examines the effects of self-driving technology on the transport system with Stockholm, Sweden as a case study, looking at four scenarios which were developed with input from 130 transport professionals from industry, academia and the public sector. Each of the scenarios include one "car" and one "public transport" mode, looking at changes in e.g. modal choice and person kilometers traveled. The national demand model Sampers is used for evaluation. The results indicate a decrease in walking and bicycling in all scenarios and a decrease in public transport travelling in scenarios with a taxi-like car service. Although this result would mean a shift from public transport to car travel, the majority of travel to and from central parts of Stockholm were still made by public transport.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Association for European Transport, 2020
Keywords
Autonomous vehicle, Public transport, Travel demand modelling, Självkörande fordon, Kollektivtrafik, Transportmodellering
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics
Research subject
Transport Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-283040 (URN)10.1016/j.trpro.2020.09.006 (DOI)2-s2.0-85096493331 (Scopus ID)
Conference
47th European Transport Conference 2019, ETC 2019, 9-11 October 2019, Dublin, Ireland
Projects
Självkörande fordon och kollektivtrafik - Hot och möjligheter
Funder
Region Stockholm, LS 2017-0585
Note

QC 20201005

Available from: 2020-10-05 Created: 2020-10-05 Last updated: 2022-06-25Bibliographically approved
2. Will leisure trips be more affected than work trips by autonomous technology? Modelling self-driving public transport and cars in Stockholm, Sweden
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Will leisure trips be more affected than work trips by autonomous technology? Modelling self-driving public transport and cars in Stockholm, Sweden
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Self-driving technology may lead to a paradigm shift for the transport industry with shared cars available to everyone. However, this vision has increasingly been challenged as too optimistic and unsubstantiated. In this study we explore societal impacts of using this technology for both cars and public transport and investigate differences depending on geography and trip purpose. Four scenarios were designed through workshops with 130 transport experts, modelled using a conventional four-step model for Stockholm, Sweden and evaluated in terms of changes to mode choice, number of trips and person kilometres. 

We find larger increases for non-commuting trips, i.e. service and leisure trips, than for commuting trips, questioning the view of the ‘productive work trip’ as self-driving technology’s main impact on society. As these trips are primarily made outside of rush hours, this may lead to a changed transport system. Geographic differences are substantial and heavily dependent on the cost model for car alternatives, even indicating a reduction in car travel in rural areas if private ownership would be replaced by shared cars. Furthermore, walking and cycling levels decreased in all scenarios while enhancing public transport using self-driving technology has a limited impact on ridership. 

These results show that the impacts of self-driving technology may have varied societal impacts even within a region and may lead to increased car travel, especially off-peak. These conclusions stress the need for policies that are sensitive to both geography and time. 

Keywords
Autonomous vehicle, Trip purpose, Mode choice, Travel demand modelling, Large-scale simulation
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics
Research subject
Transport Science, Transport Systems
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-312388 (URN)
Funder
Region Stockholm, LS 2017-0585
Note

QC 20220518

Available from: 2022-05-17 Created: 2022-05-17 Last updated: 2022-06-25Bibliographically approved
3. Frameworks for assessing societal impacts of self-driving technology
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Frameworks for assessing societal impacts of self-driving technology
Show others...
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Numerous studies have studied the impacts of self-driving technology on e.g. accident rates or CO2 emissions using various frameworks. In this paper we present an overview of previous frameworks used for societal impacts, and review their advantages and limitations. Additionally, we introduce the Total Impact Assessment (TIA) framework developed by the Swedish Transport Administration and use this framework to evaluate three scenarios for self-driving bus services in Stockholm. We conclude that the reviewed frameworks cover different aspects of self-driving technology, and that e.g. cybersecurity and biodiversity are areas neglected by most frameworks. Furthermore, most frameworks assume effects to be homogenous, when there may be large variation in e.g. perceived security. The TIA framework does not manage to include all societal aspects of self-driving technology, but has great benefits and manages to provide important insights of the societal impacts of self-driving technology, especially how effects may wary for different actors.

Keywords
self-driving vehicles, autonomous vehicles, framework, review, societal impacts
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics
Research subject
Transport Science, Transport Systems; Transport Science, Transport Systems
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-312389 (URN)
Funder
Swedish Transport Administration, TRV 2019/118695
Note

QC 20220518

Available from: 2022-05-17 Created: 2022-05-17 Last updated: 2022-06-25Bibliographically approved

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