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Eccentric exercise 24 h prior to hypobaric decompression increases decompression strain
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Centre, SAPC. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Environmental Physiology. Department of Neuroscience, Experimental Traumatology, KI Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-2623-2737
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Environmental Physiology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Centre, SAPC.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9738-9320
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Environmental Physiology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Centre, SAPC.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-5991-0733
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Environmental Physiology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Centre, SAPC.
2023 (English)In: European Journal of Applied Physiology, ISSN 1439-6319, E-ISSN 1439-6327, Vol. 123, no 9, p. 2001-2011Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Purpose: Animal studies have shown that recent musculoskeletal injuries increase the risk of decompression sickness (DCS). However, to date no similar experimental study has been performed in humans. The aim was to investigate if exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD)—as provoked by eccentric work and characterized by reduced strength and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS)—leads to increased formation of venous gas emboli (VGE) during subsequent hypobaric exposure. Methods: Each subject (n = 13) was on two occasions exposed to a simulated altitude of 24,000 ft for 90 min, whilst breathing oxygen. Twenty-four hours prior to one of the altitude exposures, each subject performed 15 min of eccentric arm-crank exercise. Markers of EIMD were reduction in isometric m. biceps brachii strength and DOMS as assessed on the Borg CR10 pain scale. The presence of VGE was measured in the right cardiac ventricle using ultrasound, with measurements performed at rest and after three leg kicks and three arm flexions. The degree of VGE was evaluated using the six-graded Eftedal–Brubakk scale and the Kisman integrated severity score (KISS). Results: Eccentric exercise induced DOMS (median 6.5), reduced the biceps brachii strength (from 230 ± 62 N to 151 ± 8.8 N) and increased the mean KISS at 24,000 ft, both at rest (from 1.2 ± 2.3 to 6.9 ± 9.2, p = 0.01) and after arm flexions (from 3.8 ± 6.2 to 15.5 ± 17.3, p = 0.029). Conclusion: EIMD, induced by eccentric work, provokes release of VGE in response to acute decompression.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature , 2023. Vol. 123, no 9, p. 2001-2011
Keywords [en]
Decompression sickness, Delayed-onset muscle soreness, Muscle injury, Venous gas emboli
National Category
Physiology and Anatomy
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-338457DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05214-3ISI: 000981334200001PubMedID: 37140728Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85158050875OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-338457DiVA, id: diva2:1812582
Note

QC 20231116

Available from: 2023-11-16 Created: 2023-11-16 Last updated: 2025-02-10Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. The effect of eccentric exercise on decompression strain
Open this publication in new window or tab >>The effect of eccentric exercise on decompression strain
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

During high-altitude flight, extravehicular activity, and following diving, decompression sickness (DCS) can occur. Even mild symptoms of DCS (e.g., joint pain) may jeopardise a mission and necessitate treatment to resolve. The aetiology of DCS is thought to be the generation of gas bubbles within tissues and the vascular system, the latter known as venous gas emboli (VGE). These bubbles are believed to be formed from gas-saturated tissues and precursor bubbles, also known as micronuclei. There is limited knowledge regarding potential pre-decompression events that might provoke the development of DCS. Anecdotal observations made in reports suggest a relationship between strenuous exercise and musculoskeletal injury with an increased risk of DCS. However, no controlled studies in humans have been conducted to further explore this relationship. Given that aviators and divers frequently engage in strenuous physical activity, it is of interest, not least from a practical viewpoint, to determine whether and to what degree muscle damage induced by strenuous physical exercise may increase the risk of developing DCS. Eccentric contractions, where muscles lengthen under tension, cause greater exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) than concentric or isometric contractions. Although many eccentric exercises have been studied for their potential to cause EIMD, the effects of eccentric arm cycling remain unexplored.

In this thesis, we examined the effect of eccentric exercise on the formation of VGE as a marker of decompression strain. The thesis is based on four separate studies with the collective aim of investigating the effects of eccentric exercise on muscle damage and the formation of high-altitude-induced VGE. 

The first study investigated eccentric arm cycling as a mode of exercise to induce muscle damage. The results show that 15 minutes of eccentric arm cycling is enough to induce EIMD, as evidenced by a reduction in isometric strength, delayed onset of muscle soreness, and elevation of markers indicative of muscle damage. 

The second study investigated the effect of eccentric upper-body exercise on the formation of VGE. The study included two conditions: (i) eccentric exercise performed 24 hours prior to decompression and (ii) no exercise (Control). The results show that performing eccentric exercise 24 hours prior to a continuous exposure to 24, 000 feet for 90 minutes led to an earlier onset and increased VGE load compared to the Control. 

The third study examined the effect of EIMD and its magnitude on high-altitude-induced VGE. The study included three conditions: (i) eccentric whole-body exercise, (ii) eccentric upper body exercise, and (iii) Control. The results show that the impact of eccentric exercise on high-altitude-induced VGE seems to vary depending on whether eccentric exercise has been performed in the upper body or lower body, rather than on the total muscle mass recruited. 

The fourth study investigated the effect of eccentric exercise on muscle damage and inflammation and explored their possible roles in hypobaric VGE formation. The study included VGE-data from studies II and III, along with blood samples collected in conjunction with Control/exercise interventions and altitude exposures. The findings suggest that eccentric EIMD and inflammation are associated with a higher decompression strain. Furthermore, VGE load seems to induce and exacerbate systemic inflammation in a dose-dependent manner. 

Abstract [sv]

Under flygning på hög höjd, vid extravehikulära aktiviteter (rymdpromenader) och efter dykning kan dekompressionssjuka (DCS) uppstå. Även milda symtom på DCS, som exempelvis ledvärk, kan äventyra ett uppdrag och kräva behandling för att lindras. Etiologin bakom DCS tros vara bildandet av gasbubblor i vävnader och det vaskulära systemet, där det senare är känt som venösa gasembolier (VGE). Dessa bubblor tros bildas från gasmättade vävnader i kombination med bubbelprekursorer, även kallade mikrokärnor. Det finns begränsad kunskap om potentiella händelser före dekompression som kan öka risken för DCS. Anekdotiska observationer i rapporter tyder på att ansträngande träning och muskuloskeletala skador är associerade med en ökad risk för DCS. Dock har inga kontrollerade studier på människor utförts för att närmare undersöka detta samband. Eftersom flygare och dykare ofta ägnar sig åt fysiskt ansträngande aktiviteter är det av intresse, inte minst ur ett praktiskt perspektiv, att undersöka om och i vilken utsträckning muskelskador orsakade av ansträngande träning kan öka risken för att utveckla DCS. Excentriska kontraktioner, där muskler förlängs under spänning, orsakar mer träningsinducerad muskelskada (EIMD) än koncentriska eller isometriska kontraktioner. Även om många excentriska övningar har studerats för sin potential att orsaka EIMD, är effekterna av excentrisk armcykling fortfarande outredda.

I denna avhandling undersökte vi effekten av excentrisk träning på bildandet av VGE som en markör för dekompressionsbelastning. Avhandlingen baseras på fyra separata studier som sammantaget syftar till att undersöka hur excentrisk träning påverkar muskelskador och bildandet av VGE vid simulerad höghöjdsexponering.   

Den första studien undersökte excentrisk armcykling som en metod för att orsaka muskelskada. Resultaten visar att 15 minuter av excentrisk armcykling är tillräckligt för att orsaka EIMD, vilket framgår av minskad isometrisk styrka och träningsvärk i den tränade muskeln, samt förhöjda nivåer av biomarkörer som indikerar muskelskada.  

Den andra studien undersökte effekten av excentrisk träning på bildandet av VGE. Studien inkluderade två betingelser: (i) excentrisk träning utförd 24 timmar före dekompression och (ii) ingen träning (Kontroll). Resultaten visar att excentrisk träning 24 timmar före kontinuerlig exponering på 24 000 fot i 90 minuter resulterade i en tidigare uppkomst och högre VGE-belastning jämfört med Kontroll.

Den tredje studien undersökte effekten av EIMD och dess omfattning på höghöjdsinducerad VGE. Studien inkluderade tre betingelser: (i) excentrisk helkroppsträning, (ii) excentrisk överkroppsträning och (iii) Kontroll. Resultaten visar att den excentriska träningens effekt på bildandet av VGE verkar bero på om träningen utförts i överkroppen eller underkroppen, snarare än den totala muskelmassan som rekryterats under träningen. 

Den fjärde studien undersökte effekten av excentrisk träning på muskelskada och inflammation, samt deras potentiella roller vid bildandet av höghöjdsinducerad VGE. Studien inkluderade VGE-data från studierna II och III, samt blodprover som togs i samband med Kontroll/träningsinterventioner och höghöjdsexponeringar. Resultaten antyder att excentrisk EIMD och inflammation är associerade med en högre dekompressionsbelastning. Vidare verkar VGE-belastningen inducera och förvärra systemisk inflammation på ett dosberoende sätt.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2024. p. 102
Series
TRITA-CBH-FOU ; 2024:46
Keywords
Eccentric exercise, arm-ergometer, exercise-induced muscle damage, inflammation, decompression, venous gas emboli, decompression sickness., Excentrisk träning, armergometer, träningsinducerade muskelskador, inflammation, dekompression, venösa gasembolier, dekompressionssjuka.
National Category
Physiology and Anatomy
Research subject
Medical Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-355850 (URN)978-91-8106-089-8 (ISBN)
Public defence
2024-11-28, Kollegiesalen, rum 4301, Brinellvägen 6, Stockholm, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish Armed Forces
Note

QC 2024-11-04

Available from: 2024-11-04 Created: 2024-11-04 Last updated: 2025-02-10Bibliographically approved

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Gottschalk, FrodeEiken, OlaElia, AntonisGennser, Mikael

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