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A comparative evaluation of mobile charging pods for electric bus operations
KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Transport planning.ORCID iD: 0009-0002-7841-2139
KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Transport planning.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1514-6777
KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Transport planning. Department of Transport & Planning, TU Delft, Delft, The Netherlands.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-4506-0459
KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Transport planning.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-4106-3126
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(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Recent advances in battery technology and the global shift toward sustainable transport have accelerated the adoption of electrified public transit systems. However, the implementation of such systems is often constrained by the need for large battery capacities and the high costs associated with stationary charging infrastructure. This study investigates the potential of Mobile Autonomous Charging Pods (MAPs) which are autonomous mobile charging vehicles as an innovative and cost-effective strategy to support the electrification of high-frequency urban bus lines. Using microscopic simulation for inner-city trunk lines in Stockholm, three charging configurations are evaluated: (i) depot-only charging, (ii) depot charging combined with end-station charging, and (iii) depot charging supported by MAPs. Results show that the MAP-based approach enables a reduction in total battery capacity by up to 67% compared to the depot-only strategy and yields total cost savings of over 7 million USD in total cost of ownership across an 11-year horizon. In addition to reducing capital and grid connection costs, MAPs offer greater operational flexibility and resilience by decentralizing energy delivery and enabling dynamic in-motion or stationary charging. The findings highlight MAPs as a scalable and economically viable solution that complements traditional depot infrastructure, offering a path toward more adaptable and efficient electric public transport networks.

National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-369706OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-369706DiVA, id: diva2:1997715
Note

Submitted to the Journal of Public Transportation

QC 20250915

Available from: 2025-09-14 Created: 2025-09-14 Last updated: 2025-09-15Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Mobile autonomous pods for electric vehicle charging operations
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Mobile autonomous pods for electric vehicle charging operations
2025 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

This thesis investigates innovative approaches to electric vehicle (EV) charging by addressing key research gaps identified through a systematic literature review on EV charging technologies. In particular, it focuses on the potential of Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) charging using Mobile Autonomous Charging Pods (MAPs), which are autonomous battery electric vehicles capable of transferring stored energy to other EVs while in motion or during short stops. To evaluate their feasibility and performance, a simulation-based framework is then developed using the Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO) platform.

The thesis addresses three central research questions: (a) how various charging technologies compare in terms of initial investment, deployability, flexibility, scalability, technological maturity, and their implications for travel time and battery sizing; (b) how MAPs can be effectively deployed to serve electric vehicle fleets; and (c) how MAPs can be integrated into urban bus networks to reduce infrastructure investments, minimize battery capacity requirements, and lower the total cost of ownership.

Paper I presents a framework that categorizes EV charging methods into stationary and dynamic (in-motion) solutions. This framework emphasizes the need for dynamic charging strategies and critically evaluates dynamic charging technologies, such as charging lanes, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) charging, and dynamic battery swapping, comparing infrastructure costs, battery capacity reduction, and scalability. The study also identifies various research gaps and future research directions for dynamic charging stations. The review underscores that a hybrid strategy, integrating both conventional and dynamic charging, may best meet future energy demands. Moreover, the research emphasizes the importance of optimization models for infrastructure deployment, the need to balance battery capacity reduction with battery life preservation, and the development of interoperability standards to ensure seamless integration with emerging autonomous technologies. These contributions not only advance academic understanding but also offer practical guidance for policymakers, transit planners, and industry stakeholders seeking to enhance the sustainability and efficiency of modern transportation systems.

Paper II introduces a dynamic mobile charging strategy using MAPs. Through microscopic simulation with SUMO, this research evaluates the feasibility and benefits of the proposed approach in facilitating continuous autonomous electric vehicles (eAV) operation based on the maximum number of eAVs served on a toy network, energy consumed, charging efficiency of MAPs, and reduced travel time compared to stationary charging. Results indicate that MAPs may effectively support eAVs in driving continuously by providing on-the-go charging, thereby reducing the need for large battery capacities in eAVs, thus reducing weight and cost. The study also identifies potential use cases and locations where MAPs will have greater benefits, the economic and operational benefits of MAP deployment, while outlining potential barriers and future research directions in optimization and control.

Paper III evaluates charging strategies for urban bus networks using a simulation-based approach focused on Stockholm’s inner-city bus lines. It compares various charging strategies for electric buses including depot-only charging, depot combined with end-station charging, and depot augmented by MAP charging. The findings indicate that MAP-based dynamic charging substantially reduces both required battery size, infrastructure costs, and total cost of ownership, while enhancing service reliability.

Collectively, these studies provide a systematic assessment of EV charging methods and highlight the potential of dynamic charging, particularly through MAPs, in developing sustainable and efficient transportation systems.

Abstract [sv]

Denna avhandling undersöker innovativa metoder för laddning av elfordon (EV) genom att adressera centrala forskningsluckor som identifierats via en omfattande litteraturöversikt över laddningsteknologier för elfordon. Särskilt fokus ligger på potentialen hos fordons-till-fordons-laddning (Vehicle-to-Vehicle, V2V) med hjälp av mobila autonoma laddningspoddar (Mobile Autonomous Charging Pods, MAPs), vilka är autonoma batterielektriska fordon som kan överföra lagrad energi till andra elfordon under färd eller vid korta stopp. För att utvärdera deras genomförbarhet och prestanda utvecklas ett simuleringsbaserat ramverk med hjälp av plattformen Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO).

Avhandlingen behandlar tre centrala forskningsfrågor: (a) hur olika laddningsteknologier jämförs avseende initiala investeringar, driftsättning, flexibilitet, skalbarhet, teknologisk mognad samt deras påverkan på restid och batteristorlek; (b) hur MAPs effektivt kan distribueras för att stödja flottor av elfordon; och (c) hur MAPs kan integreras i urbana bussnätverk för att minska infrastrukturinvesteringar, minimera behovet av batterikapacitet och sänka den totala ägandekostnaden.

Artikel I presenterar ett ramverk som kategoriserar laddningsmetoder för elfordon i stationära och dynamiska (under rörelse) lösningar. Detta ramverk betonar behovet av dynamiska laddningsstrategier och utvärderar kritiskt teknologier för dynamisk laddning, såsom laddningsfält, fordons-till-fordons-laddning (V2V), och dynamiskt batteribyte. Jämförelser görs av infrastrukturkostnader, reduktion av batterikapacitet och skalbarhet. Studien identifierar även olika forskningsluckor och framtida forskningsvägar för dynamiska laddningsstationer. Översikten understryker att en hybridstrategi som integrerar både konventionell och dynamisk laddning kan bäst möta framtida energibehov. Vidare lyfts vikten av optimeringsmodeller för infrastrukturutbyggnad, behovet av att balansera minskad batterikapacitet med bibehållen batterilivslängd samt utvecklingen av interoperabilitetsstandarder för att möjliggöra sömlös integration med framväxande autonoma teknologier. Dessa bidrag främjar inte bara den akademiska förståelsen, utan erbjuder även praktisk vägledning för beslutsfattare, trafikplanerare och branschaktörer som vill förbättra hållbarheten och effektiviteten i moderna transportsystem.

Artikel II introducerar en dynamisk mobil laddningsstrategi med hjälp av MAPs. Genom mikroskopisk simulering med SUMO utvärderas genomförbarheten och nyttan av det föreslagna tillvägagångssättet för att möjliggöra kontinuerlig drift av autonoma elfordon (eAV) baserat på antalet betjänade eAVs i ett testsystem, energiförbrukning, laddningseffektivitet hos MAPs och minskad restid i jämförelse med stationär laddning. Resultaten visar att MAPs effektivt kan stödja kontinuerlig drift av eAVs genom att tillhandahålla laddning under färd, vilket minskar behovet av stora batterier i eAVs, och därmed minskar både vikt och kostnad. Studien identifierar även potentiella användningsområden och geografiska platser där MAPs ger störst nytta, de ekonomiska och operativa fördelarna med MAP-distribution samt möjliga hinder och framtida forskningsbehov inom optimering och styrning.

Artikel III utvärderar laddningsstrategier för urbana bussnätverk med en simuleringsbaserad metod fokuserad på Stockholms innerstads busslinjer. Här jämförs olika laddningsstrategier för elbussar, inklusive laddning enbart på depå, laddning på depå i kombination med slutstation, samt depåladdning kompletterad med MAP-baserad laddning. Resultaten visar att dynamisk laddning med MAPs avsevärt minskar både nödvändig batteristorlek, infrastrukturkostnader och den totala ägandekostnaden, samtidigt som driftssäkerheten ökar.

Sammantaget erbjuder dessa studier en systematisk bedömning av laddningsmetoder för elfordon och lyfter fram potentialen hos dynamisk laddning – särskilt med hjälp av MAPs – för att utveckla hållbara och effektiva transportsystem.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2025. p. 48
Series
TRITA-ABE-DLT ; 2527
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering Transport Systems and Logistics
Research subject
Transport Science, Transport Systems
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-369825 (URN)978-91-8106-372-1 (ISBN)
Presentation
2025-10-10, D2, Lindstedtsvägen 5, KTH Campus, public video conference link https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/62861612561, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish Transport Administration, K1048
Note

QC 20250915

Available from: 2025-09-15 Created: 2025-09-15 Last updated: 2025-11-04Bibliographically approved

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Khan, Mohd AimanBurghout, WilcoCats, OdedJenelius, ErikCebecauer, Matej

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