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Towards Human-in-the-Loop Smart Buildings: Data-Driven Predictive Control and Occupant Modeling
KTH, School of Industrial Engineering and Management (ITM), Energy Technology, Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration.ORCID iD: 0009-0002-3546-8933
2025 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

The building sector accounts for almost 40% of the European Union’s total energy consumption, and a large portion of this consumption is related to heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems. In addition to HVAC loads, occupant behavior plays a critical role in building energy use. However, traditional energy performance analyses typically model occupants as passive recipients of indoor conditions rather than as active participants who influence building performance. Such simplifications can lead to notable discrepancies between predicted and actual energy use. Motivated by this challenge, this thesis develops robust data-driven predictive control methods that can explicitly account for uncertainties. This method can be useful at a later stage for including the impact of occupant behaviors in smart building control. Moreover, occupant behavior models are developed by leveraging high-resolution measurements from the KTH Live-In Lab to quantify their impact on heating energy consumption. Finally, it is investigated how social interactions among occupants can improve sustainable behaviors and further reduce building energy use. 

The first technical contribution in this thesis is to design a data-driven, robust tube-based zonotopic predictive-control (TZPC) approach for unknown discrete-time linear systems with bounded uncertainties, using input–state data. We prove the recursive feasibility, robust constraint satisfaction, and the robust exponential stability of the closed-loop system. This approach is then extended to unknown nonlinear systems by exploiting reachability analysis and designing a controller that relies solely on input–output data. We prove that the proposed nonlinear zonotopic predictive control (NZPC) approach satisfies the constraints under any admissible bounded uncertainties.

The thesis’s second contribution examines how physical environmental and categorical variables influence occupants’ window operation in a Swedish residential building at the KTH Live-In Lab, based on four years of winter data. Using a multiple logistic regression approach, twelve distinct behavior patterns are modeled. These models are integrated into a digital model of the building to quantify their effect on heating demand. Simulation results indicate that variations in window operation patterns can increase heating energy consumption by up to three times compared to a baseline scenario without window interaction. 

Finally, this thesis includes a longitudinal experimental study with selected occupants at the KTH Live-In Lab, investigating the influence of social interactions on promoting sustainable behaviors and reducing energy consumption. The study highlights that digitalizing households into socially interconnected networks effectively improves sustainable lifestyle choices, such as optimized resource use and consumption.

Abstract [sv]

Fastigheter står för nästan 40% av den Europeiska unionens totala energiförbrukning - varav en stor del är kopplad till värme-, ventilations- och luftkonditioneringssystem (HVAC). Utöver de oundvikliga lasterna från HVAC spelar de boendes beteende en avgörande betydelse för byggnaders energianvändning. Trots detta brukar traditionella analyser av energiprestanda modellera de boende som passiva snarare än aktiva aktörer som påverkar inomhusklimatet och i förlängningen byggnadens prestanda. Sådana förenklingar kan leda till betydande avvikelser mellan uppskattad och faktisk energianvändning. Motiverat av denna utmaning utvecklar detta arbete robusta datadrivna prediktiva styrmetoder som explicit tar hänsyn till osäkerheter. Dessa metoder kan vara användbara i ett senare skede för att inkludera effekten av de boendes beteende i smarta byggnaders styrsystem. Dessutom utvecklas modeller för de boendes beteende genom att utnyttja högupplösta mätningar från KTH Live-In Lab för att kvantifiera deras påverkan på energiförbrukningen för uppvärmning. Slutligen undersöks hur sociala interaktioner mellan de boende kan främja hållbara beteenden och ytterligare minska byggnaders energianvändning.

Avhandlingens första tekniska bidrag är en datadriven, robust “tube''-baserad zonotopisk prediktiv styrmetod (TZPC) utformad för okända diskreta linjära system med begränsade osäkerheter, baserad på indata och tillståndsdata. Vi visar rekursiv lösbarhet, robust tillfredsställelse av bivillkor samt robust exponentiell stabilitet av det återkopplade systemet. Metoden utvidgas sedan till okända icke-linjära system genom att använda “reachability analysis” och utforma styrsystem som enbart bygger på indata och utdata. Vi bevisar att den föreslagna icke-linjära zonotopbaserade prediktiva styrningen (NZPC) uppfyller bivillkoren under alla tillåtna störningar med begränsat avvikelseintervall.

Avhandlingens andra bidrag undersöker hur fysiska miljövariabler och kategoriska variabler påverkar boendes beteende i en svensk bostad vid KTH Live-In Lab, baserat på fyra års vinterdata. Med hjälp av multipel logistisk regressionsanalys modelleras tolv distinkta beteendemönster. Dessa modeller integreras i en digital byggnadsmodell för att kvantifiera deras effekt på uppvärmningsbehovet. Simuleringsresultaten visar att variationer i fönsteröppningsmönster kan öka energianvändningen för uppvärmning upp till tre gånger jämfört med ett referensscenario som inte tar hänsyn till fönsterinteraktion.

Avslutningsvis innehåller denna avhandling en longitudinell experimentell studie med utvalda boenden vid KTH Live-In Lab,  där vi undersöker hur sociala interaktioner påverkar främjandet av hållbara beteenden och minskad energianvändning. Studien visar att digitalisering av hushåll till socialt sammankopplade nätverk effektivt kan främja hållbara livsstilsval, såsom optimerad resursanvändning och konsumtion.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: Kungliga Tekniska högskolan, 2025. , p. 55
Series
TRITA-ITM-AVL ; 2025:37
National Category
Energy Engineering Control Engineering
Research subject
Energy Technology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-369711ISBN: 978-91-8106-373-8 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-369711DiVA, id: diva2:1997748
Presentation
2025-10-10, K1 / https://kth-se.zoom.us/s/63644880139, Teknikringen 56, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-09-16 Created: 2025-09-14 Last updated: 2025-10-07Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Robust Data-Driven Tube-Based Zonotopic Predictive Control with Closed-Loop Guarantees
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2024 (English)In: 2024 IEEE 63rd Conference on Decision and Control, CDC 2024, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) , 2024, p. 6837-6843Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

This work proposes a robust data-driven tube-based zonotopic predictive control (TZPC) approach for discrete-time linear systems, designed to ensure stability and recursive feasibility in the presence of bounded noise. The proposed approach consists of two phases. In an initial learning phase, we provide an over-approximation of all models consistent with past input and noisy state data using zonotope properties. Subsequently, in a control phase, we formulate an optimization problem, which by integrating terminal ingredients is proven to be recursively feasible. Moreover, we prove that implementing this data-driven predictive control approach guarantees robust exponential stability of the closed-loop system. The effectiveness and competitive performance of the proposed control strategy, compared to recent data-driven predictive control methods, are illustrated through numerical simulations.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2024
National Category
Control Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-361765 (URN)10.1109/CDC56724.2024.10886128 (DOI)001445827205100 ()2-s2.0-86000641423 (Scopus ID)
Conference
63rd IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, CDC 2024, Milan, Italy, Dec 16 2024 - Dec 19 2024
Note

Part of ISBN 9798350316339

QC 20250401

Available from: 2025-03-27 Created: 2025-03-27 Last updated: 2025-12-05Bibliographically approved
2. Robust data-driven predictive control of unknown nonlinear systems using reachability analysis
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2023 (English)In: European Journal of Control, ISSN 0947-3580, Vol. 74, article id 100878Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This work proposes a robust data-driven predictive control approach for unknown nonlinear systems in the presence of bounded process and measurement noise. Data-driven reachable sets are employed for the controller design instead of using an explicit nonlinear system model. Although the process and measurement noise are bounded, the statistical properties of the noise are not required to be known. By using the past noisy input-output data in the learning phase, we propose a novel method to over-approximate exact reachable sets of an unknown nonlinear system. Then, we propose a data-driven predictive control approach to compute safe and robust control policies from noisy online data. The constraints are guaranteed in the control phase with robust safety margins by effectively using the predicted output reachable set obtained in the learning phase. Finally, a numerical example validates the efficacy of the proposed approach and demonstrates comparable performance with a model-based predictive control approach.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2023
Keywords
Data-driven methods, Nonlinear systems, Predictive control, Reachability analysis, Zonotopes
National Category
Control Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-332094 (URN)10.1016/j.ejcon.2023.100878 (DOI)001111439700001 ()2-s2.0-85165280389 (Scopus ID)
Projects
Cost-and Energy-Efficient Control Systems for BuildingsCLAS—Cybersäkra lärande reglersystemHiSS - Humanizing the Sustainable Smart City, Digital Futures, contract number VF-2020-0260European Union, Horizon Research and Innovation Programme, Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 101062523.
Funder
Swedish Energy Agency, 47859-1Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, RIT17-0046
Note

QC 20260116

Available from: 2023-07-19 Created: 2023-07-19 Last updated: 2026-01-16Bibliographically approved
3. What influences occupants' behavior in residential buildings: An experimental study on window operation in the KTH Live-In Lab
Open this publication in new window or tab >>What influences occupants' behavior in residential buildings: An experimental study on window operation in the KTH Live-In Lab
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2023 (English)In: 2023 IEEE Conference on Control Technology and Applications, CCTA 2023, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) , 2023, p. 752-758Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

 Window-opening and window-closing behaviors play an important role in indoor environmental conditions and therefore have an impact on building energy efficiency. On the other hand, the same environmental conditions drive occupants to interact with windows. Understanding this mutual relationship of interaction between occupants and the residential building is thus crucial to improve energy efficiency without disregarding occupants' comfort. This paper investigates the influence of physical environmental variables (i.e., indoor and outside climate parameters) and categorical variables (i.e., time of the day) on occupants' behavior patterns related to window operation, utilizing a multivariate logistic regression analysis. The data considered in this study are collected during winter months, when the effect on the energy consumption of the window operation is the highest, at a Swedish residential building, the KTH Live-In Lab, accommodating four occupants in separate studio apartments. Although all the occupants seem to share a sensitivity to some common factors, such as air quality and time of the day, we can also observe individual variability with respect to the most significant drivers influencing window operation behaviors. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2023
National Category
Control Engineering Energy Systems
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-336515 (URN)10.1109/CCTA54093.2023.10253188 (DOI)2-s2.0-85173867654 (Scopus ID)
Conference
2023 IEEE Conference on Control Technology and Applications, CCTA 2023, Bridgetown, Barbados, August 16-18, 2023
Projects
Cost-and Energy-Efficient Control Systems for BuildingsCLAS–Cybersäkra lärande reglersystemSwedish Research Council Distinguished Professor GrantHiSS - Humanizing the Sustainable Smart CityKnut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation Wallenberg Scholar Grant
Funder
Swedish Energy Agency, 47859-1Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, RIT17-0046Swedish Research Council, 2017-0107
Note

Part of ISBN 9798350335446

QC 20250922

Available from: 2023-09-12 Created: 2023-09-12 Last updated: 2025-09-22Bibliographically approved
4. Social interactions for a sustainable lifestyle: The design of an experimental case study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Social interactions for a sustainable lifestyle: The design of an experimental case study
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2023 (English)Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Every day we face numerous lifestyle decisions, some dictated by habits and some more conscious, which may or may not promote sustainable living. Aided by digital technology, sustainable behaviors can diffuse within social groups and inclusive communities. This paper outlines a longitudinal experimental study of social influence in behavioral changes toward sustainability, in the context of smart residential homes. Participants are residing in the housing on campus referred to as KTH Live-In Lab, whose behaviors are observed w.r.t. key lifestyle choices, such as food, resources, mobility, consumption, and environmental citizenship. The focus is on the preparatory phase of the case study and the challenges and limitations encountered during its setup. In particular, this work proposes a definition of sustainability indicators for environmentally significant behaviors, and hypothesizes that, through digitalization of a household into a social network of interacting tenants, sustainable living can be promoted. Preliminary results confirm the feasibility of the proposed experimental methodology.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2023
Keywords
cyber-physical-human systems, experimental study, Live-In Lab, smart homes, social networks, Sustainable behavior
National Category
Other Social Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-349826 (URN)10.1016/j.ifacol.2023.10.1642 (DOI)001196708400105 ()2-s2.0-85166557947 (Scopus ID)
Conference
22nd IFAC World Congress, Yokohama, Japan, Jul 9 2023 - Jul 14 2023
Note

Part of ISBN 9781713872344

QC 20240703

Available from: 2024-07-03 Created: 2024-07-03 Last updated: 2025-09-14Bibliographically approved

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