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Multi-scale simulation of axonal injuries: Integrating finite element analysis and molecular dynamics
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Neuronic Engineering.ORCID iD: 0009-0001-6312-345X
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Sustainable development
SDG 3: Good Health and Well-Being
Abstract [en]

Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is a common and devastating form of traumatic brain injury caused by external forces applied to the head, which in turn damages axons within the brain’s white matter at the cellular level. This type of injury often remains undiagnosed, as symptoms may develop gradually over days, weeks or even months following the initial impact. Therefore, a deeper understanding of the mechanisms by which mechanical forces applied at the head level lead to axonal and molecular damage is crucial for improving early diagnosis and developing more effective treatment and prevention strategies. 

Because of DAI’s multi-scale nature, its exact mechanisms remain poorly understood and difficult to investigate experimentally. Computational modelling, however, provides a valuable tool to explore these mechanisms in greater detail. In particular, coupling different computational approaches enables the study of injury phenomena across multiple scales. This thesis addresses unanswered questions about DAI using finite element (FE) analysis and molecular dynamics (MD). In total, four studies were conducted to form this thesis and can be divided into two parts. The first two studies aim to investigate DAI at the cellular level using FE, and the other two studies focus on this injury at the molecular level using MD simulations. 

Axon’s behaviour under deformation depends largely on the matrix in which it is embedded. Namely, the axons in the brain are surrounded by various cells, the extracellular matrix, and myelin sheaths. However, the mechanical properties of the matrix that surrounds the axons in different regions of the brain are not known. To address this, we conducted Study I to determine the material properties of microstructural elements in the brain white matter across different regions. Namely, the tissue was modelled as a composite material consisting of an axon surrounded by a matrix. The matrix represented other components in the brain white matter that surround the axon. Then, the material properties of the axon and the matrix were calculated from available experimental data. The derived matrix material properties were used in Study II to investigate the response of the axon and its subcellular components to different loading modes. FE models of the brain white matter, consisting of axons embedded inside a matrix, were modified and simulated under tension, compression and shear, and the response of subcellular components of the axon was monitored. According to the results, the axonal compartments deform more under tension and compression than under shear. In addition, the membrane elements appear to be one of the main load-bearing compartments. Therefore, we conducted two molecular-level studies to investigate these components in more detail. 

Study III used coarse-grained MD simulations to model axonal membranes at different v regions and examine their deformation behaviour up to rupture. The results show that rupture strains across the membrane differ across different axonal regions, with the node of Ranvier having the lowest rupture strain. Moreover, by linking MD results to FE simulations, we estimated the axonal strains at the cell level associated with the membrane rupture at the molecular level. Since this study was used at a coarse-grained level where three or four large atoms are modelled together, it could not capture the atomistic changes that occur in the membrane. To address this limitation, Study IV employed atomistic MD simulations to model the axonal membrane as a protein embedded in a bilayer and to investigate the mechanical behaviour of both the bilayer and the embedded protein under strain at the atomic level. The results suggest that structural changes in the protein that might lead to its malfunction occur before the bilayer rupture. 

Collectively, these four studies provide new insights into the lesser-known aspects of DAI by combining computational methods across multiple scales. The findings establish more accurate injury thresholds for axons under various deformation modes and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of DAI mechanisms at the tissue, cellular and molecular levels.

Abstract [sv]

Diffus axonal skada (DAI) är en vanlig och allvarlig form av traumatisk hjärnskada som orsakas av yttre krafter mot huvudet och som i sin tur skadar axoner i hjärnans vita substans på cellulär nivå. Denna typ av skada förblir ofta odiagnostiserad, eftersom symptomen kan utvecklas gradvis under dagar, veckor eller till och med månader efter den initiala påverkan. Därför är en djupare förståelse av de mekanismer genom vilka mekaniska krafter på huvudnivå leder till axonal och molekylär skada avgörande för att förbättra tidig diagnostik och utveckla mer effektiva strategier för förebyggande och behandling. På grund av DAI:s flerskaliga natur är dess exakta mekanismer fortfarande dåligt förstådda och svåra att undersöka experimentellt. Beräkningsmodellering erbjuder dock ett värdefullt verktyg för att utforska dessa mekanismer i mer detalj. I synnerhet möjliggör koppling av olika beräkningsmetoder studier av skadefenomen över flera skalor.

Denna avhandling fokuserar på att besvara några av de obesvarade frågorna kring DAI med hjälp av finita element-analys (FE) och molekyldynamik (MD). Med hänsyn till effekten av axonets omgivning på lastfördelningen mellan dess subcellulära komponenter genomfördes Studie I för att härleda materialegenskaperna hos mikrostrukturella element i hjärnans vita substans i olika regioner. Vävnaden modellerades som ett kompositmaterial bestående av ett axon omgivet av en matris som representerar övriga komponenter i den vita substansen. De härledda materialegenskaperna för matrisen användes i Studie II för att undersöka responsen hos axonet och dess subcellulära komponenter under olika deformationsriktningar. FE-modeller av vit substans, bestående av axoner inbäddade i en matris, modifierades och simulerades under dragning, kompression och skjuvning, och responsen hos axonets subcellulära komponenter analyserades. Enligt resultaten deformeras de axonala delarna mer vid drag- och tryckbelastning än vid skjuvning. Dessutom verkar membranet vara en av de huvudsakliga belastningsbärande komponenterna. Därför genomförde vi två studier på molekylär nivå för att undersöka dessa komponenter mer i detalj.

I Studie III användes grovkorniga MD-simuleringar för att modellera axonala membran i olika regioner och undersöka deras deformationsbeteende fram till brott. Resultaten visar att brottöjningen i membranet varierar mellan olika axonala regioner, där Ranviers nod har den lägsta brottöjning. MD resultaten kopplades till FE-modeller för att uppskatta de axonala töjningar som är förknippade med membranruptur. Även om denna studie gav värdefulla insikter i brottöjningar för olika membranvarianter, fångade den inte proteinrelaterade responser som kan spela en roll vid uppkomsten av axonal skada. För att hantera denna begränsning användes i Studie IV atomistiska MD-simuleringar för att modellera det axonala membranet som ett protein inbäddat i ett dubbellager och för att undersöka det mekaniska beteendet hos både lipiddubbellagret och det inbäddade proteinet under töjning. Resultaten tyder på att strukturella förändringar i proteinet, som kan leda till funktionsstörning, sker före bilagerruptur.

Sammantaget ger dessa fyra studier nya insikter i mindre utforskade aspekter av DAI genom att kombinera beräkningsmetoder över flera skalor. Resultaten fastställer mer exakta skadetrösklar för axoner under olika deformationslägen och bidrar till en mer heltäckande förståelse av DAI-mekanismer på både vävnads- , cellulär, och molekylär nivå.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm, Sweden: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. , p. 67
Series
TRITA-CBH-FOU ; 2026:11
Keywords [en]
Traumatic brain injury, Diffuse axonal injury, Multi-scale modelling, Finite element analysis, Molecular dynamics, Brain white matter, Axonal membrane
Keywords [sv]
Traumatisk hjärnskada, diffus axonal skada, flerskalig modellering, finita element-analys, molekyldynamik, hjärnans vita substans, axonalt membran
National Category
Medical Modelling and Simulation
Research subject
Technology and Health
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-376821ISBN: 978-91-8106-549-7 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-376821DiVA, id: diva2:2039792
Public defence
2026-03-12, U4, via Zoom: https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/63621850218, Alfred Nobels allé 8, stockholm, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish Research Council, VR-2020-04496
Note

QC 2026-02-18

Available from: 2026-02-18 Created: 2026-02-18 Last updated: 2026-02-18Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Constitutive modelling of the axon and matrix: A finite element and neural network approach
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Constitutive modelling of the axon and matrix: A finite element and neural network approach
2025 (English)In: Journal of The Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, ISSN 1751-6161, E-ISSN 1878-0180, Vol. 170, p. 107082-, article id 107082Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Diffuse axon injury is a common trauma that affects the axons in the brain's white matter. Computational models of axons, both in isolation and within the matrix, have been developed to study this injury at cellular and tissue levels. However, axonal behaviour depends strongly on the mechanical properties of the surrounding matrix. Accurate material properties of axons and the matrix are essential for realistic modelling of their behaviour. This study characterises the hyper-viscoelastic properties of axons and their matrix for human brain tissue in two different white matter regions. First, previous experimental data on isolated axons under tension were used to determine their mechanical properties. Then, employing finite element analysis, neural networks, and optimisation methods, matrix properties were inferred using experimental data on human brain tissue behaviour under three shear modes at large deformations and varying strain rates. The results indicate that axons are approximately 10–13 times stiffer than the surrounding matrix, depending on the region. The material properties defined in this study provide an accurate representation of axonal and matrix behaviour under injurious conditions, as they are based on large-strain and high-strain-rate data. The constitutive model can be used for a more precise assessment of the injury threshold and the mechanisms of diffuse axon injury at the cellular level.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2025
Keywords
Axon, Brain white matter, Material properties, matrix, Traumatic brain injury
National Category
Neurosciences Other Medical Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-366561 (URN)10.1016/j.jmbbm.2025.107082 (DOI)001517106500001 ()40540834 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105008341046 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250710

Available from: 2025-07-10 Created: 2025-07-10 Last updated: 2026-02-18Bibliographically approved
2. Tensile loading along the axonal direction causes greater deformation of the subcellular compartments than compression or shear
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Tensile loading along the axonal direction causes greater deformation of the subcellular compartments than compression or shear
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Medical Modelling and Simulation
Research subject
Technology and Health
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-376814 (URN)
Note

QC 20260217

Available from: 2026-02-17 Created: 2026-02-17 Last updated: 2026-02-18Bibliographically approved
3. Molecular dynamics study of stiffness and rupture of axonal membranes
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Molecular dynamics study of stiffness and rupture of axonal membranes
2025 (English)In: Brain Research Bulletin, ISSN 0361-9230, E-ISSN 1873-2747, Vol. 223, article id 111266Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Diffuse axonal injury (DAI), characterized by widespread damage to axons throughout the brain, represents one of the most devastating and difficult-to-treat forms of traumatic brain injury. Different theories exist about the mechanism of DAI, among which one hypothesis states that membrane poration of the axons initiates DAI. To investigate the hypothesis, molecular models of axonal membranes, incorporating 25 different lipids distributed asymmetrically in the leaflets, were developed using a coarse-grain description and simulated using molecular dynamics techniques. Different protein concentrations were embedded inside the lipid bilayer to describe the different sub-cellular parts in myelinated and unmyelinated axons. The models were investigated in equilibration and under deformation to characterize the structural and mechanical properties of the membranes, and comparisons were made with other subcellular parts, particularly myelin. Employing a bottom-top approach, the results were coupled with a finite element model representing the axon at the cell level. The results indicate that pore formation in the node-of-Ranvier occurs at a lower rupture strain compared to other axolemma parts, whereas myelin poration exhibits the highest rupture strains among the investigated models. The observed rupture strain for the node-of-Ranvier aligns with experimental studies, indicating a threshold for injury at axonal strains exceeding 10–13 % depending on the strain rate. The results indicate that the hypothesis suggesting mechanoporation triggers axonal injury cannot be dismissed, as this phenomenon occurs within the threshold of axonal injury.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2025
Keywords
Axolemma, Diffuse axon injury, Mechanoporation, Molecular dynamics, Traumatic brain injury
National Category
Biophysics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-361168 (URN)10.1016/j.brainresbull.2025.111266 (DOI)001437805100001 ()39993508 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85219059169 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250326

Available from: 2025-03-12 Created: 2025-03-12 Last updated: 2026-02-18Bibliographically approved
4. Protein structural changes precede membrane mechanoporation under deformation: a molecular dynamics study of axonal injury
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Protein structural changes precede membrane mechanoporation under deformation: a molecular dynamics study of axonal injury
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Medical Modelling and Simulation
Research subject
Technology and Health
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-376813 (URN)
Note

QC 20260217

Available from: 2026-02-17 Created: 2026-02-17 Last updated: 2026-02-18Bibliographically approved

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