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Scalable Fabrication of 4 nm Silicon Nanopores by Self-Limiting Metal-Assisted Chemical Etching Combined with Optical Process Control
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Micro and Nanosystems.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-0960-9931
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Micro and Nanosystems.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1917-6201
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(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Solid-state nanopores in ultrathin (<20 nm) membranes enable label-free single-molecule sensing, but their adoption as sensors is limited by the lack of scalable manufacturing methods that deliver nanopores with single-nanometer reproducibility. Self-limiting metal-assisted chemical etching (MACE) in silicon-on-insulator (SOI) membranes offers a parallel wet-chemical route for nanopore fabrication, yet prior demonstrations lacked a predictive design rule and required electron microscopy or electrical tests for confirming presence and number of pores. Here, we convert self-limiting MACE into a manufacturing-oriented workflow with optical process control to obtain and verify the formation of 4 nm nanopores in a scalable fashion. We decouple the deposition of 200 ± 10 nm gold (Au) nanoparticles from etching, enabling independent optimization of the two steps. The nanoparticle size allows for particle-per-membrane counting by dark-field optical microscopy, so that deposition can be repeated when counts are below target. We then map etching behavior across Au nanoparticle diameter d (10–200 nm) and silicon (Si) device-layer thickness t (5–18 nm), finding that d/t ≥ 0.8 ratio predicts self-limiting MACE behavior, where pore diameter becomes independent of particle size. In this regime, 200 ± 10 nm catalysts yield 4 ± 1 nm pores, corresponding to a reduction of ~50× in pore diameter and ~10× in pore-diameter variability compared to the catalyst diameter and related variability. Successful through-membrane pore formation produces undercuts in the buried oxide (typically ~200–300 nm diameter) beneath each pore, which can be characterized for each membrane by bright-field microscopy and used as proxy for the otherwise optically invisible 4 nm pores. Together, the predictive d/t framework and two-stage optical verification establish a scalable wet-chemical route to fabricate nanopores for biomolecular sensing and related nanofluidic devices.

Keywords [en]
nanopore sensors, ultrathin membranes, silicon-on-insulator, MACE, self-limiting etching, parallel fabrication, process monitoring
National Category
Nanotechnology for/in Life Science and Medicine Nanotechnology Nanotechnology for Material Science
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-380997OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-380997DiVA, id: diva2:2058264
Note

QC 20260508

Available from: 2026-05-07 Created: 2026-05-07 Last updated: 2026-06-08Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. From DNA Detection to Organs-on-Chip Monitoring: Fabrication Solutions for Integrated Biosensing
Open this publication in new window or tab >>From DNA Detection to Organs-on-Chip Monitoring: Fabrication Solutions for Integrated Biosensing
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Bringing a biosensor from laboratory demonstration to practical use depends as much on fabrication as on the sensing principle itself. This thesis develops fabrication strategies that overcome specific technological barriers across biosensing domains: from single-molecule electrochemical detection to real-time optical monitoring in organ-on-chip platforms.

In the electrochemical domain, the thesis identifies the conditions under which metal-assisted chemical etching enters the self-limiting regime in ultrathin silicon-on-insulator membranes, where catalyst size decouples from pore size, yielding ~5 nm pores with 1 nm variability (Papers I, II). A complementary approach translates micrometer-scale lithographic features into sub-10 nm pores through controlled fracture of pre-stressed membranes, validated for both electrical and optical single-molecule DNA detection down to 30 bases (Paper III). A two-tier fabrication architecture for organic electrochemical transistors decouples electrode routing from polymer channel definition via direct femtosecond laser writing, achieving single-micrometer resolution outside the cleanroom; channel outlining confines the ion-transport volume and improves switching speed by three orders of magnitude (Paper V). Colloidal self-assembly of polystyrene beads in silk fibroin produces biocompatible photonic crystals in which the defect-layer bead diameter programs the passband wavelength, establishing a design principle for spectral control in biocompatible optical structures (Paper IV). This fabrication logic, using particle size to define a functional feature in a host material, extends from the silicon nanopore work and enables the design of biocompatible photonic crystals.

In the optical integration domain, laser-machined PMMA modules with commodity optoelectronics replace benchtop instruments for continuous pH and dissolved oxygen monitoring in microfluidic systems (Paper VI). The modular architecture integrates with the bioreactor design without modification and operates autonomously from single-bioreactor cell culture through five-day multi-organ drug testing, enabling detection of liver-mediated drug conversion that is unobservable in single-organ systems (Paper VII).

Across those domains, understanding the sensing principle, material properties, and available fabrication tools guides the development of processes that achieve application-relevant precision while reducing costs and infrastructure requirements.

Abstract [sv]

Att ta en biosensor från laboratoriedemonstration till praktisk användning beror lika mycket på tillverkning som på sensorprincipen i sig. Denna avhandling utvecklar tillverkningsstrategier som övervinner specifika tekniska hinder inom biosensordomäner: från elektrokemisk detektering av enskilda molekyler till optisk realtidsövervakning i organ-på-chip-plattformar.

Inom den elektrokemiska domänen identifierar avhandlingen de förhållanden under vilka metallassisterad kemisk etsning övergår till ett självbegränsande regime i ultratunna kisel-på-isolator-membran, där katalysatorstorleken frikopplas från porstorleken och ger ~5 nm porer med 1 nm variabilitet (Artikel I, II). En kompletterande metod översätter litografiska strukturer på mikrometerskala till porer under 10 nm genom kontrollerad fraktur av förspända membran, validerad för både elektrisk och optisk detektion av enskilda DNA-molekyler ned till 30 baser (Artikel III). En tvånivå-tillverkningsarkitektur för organiska elektrokemiska transistorer frikopplar elektrodledningar från polymerkanalsdefinition via direkt femtosekundslaserskrivning och uppnår upplösning på enstaka mikrometer utanför renrummet; kanalkonturering begränser jontransportvolymen och förbättrar switchhastigheten med tre storleksordningar (Artikel V). Kolloidal självorganisering av polystyrenkulor i silkesfibroin ger biokompatibla fotoniska kristaller där kuldiametern i defektlagret programmerar passbandsvåglängden och etablerar en designprincip för spektral styrning i biokompatibla optiska strukturer (Artikel IV). Denna tillverkningslogik, att använda partikelstorleken för att definiera en funktionell egenskap i ett värdmaterial, utgår från arbetet med kiselnanoporer och möjliggör design av biokompatibla fotoniska kristaller.

Inom den optiska integrationsdomänen ersätter laserskurna PMMA-moduler med standardkomponenter inom optoelektronik bänkinstrument för kontinuerlig pH- och syreövervakning i mikrofluidiska system (Artikel VI). Den modulära arkitekturen integreras i bioreaktordesignen utan modifikationer och arbetar autonomt från cellodling i enskilda bioreaktorer till femdagars läkemedelstestning i flerorgansystem, vilket möjliggör detektering av leverförmedlad läkemedelsomvandling som inte är observerbar i enkelorgansystem (Artikel VII).

Inom dessa domäner vägleder förståelsen av sensorprincipen, materialegenskaperna och de tillgängliga tillverkningsverktygen utvecklingen av processer som uppnår applikationsrelevant precision med minskade kostnader och infrastrukturkrav.

Abstract [it]

Il passaggio di un biosensore dalla fase di dimostrazione in laboratorio all'uso pratico dipende tanto dal processo di fabbricazione quanto dal principio stesso di rilevamento. Questa tesi sviluppa strategie di fabbricazione volte a superare specifiche barriere tecnologiche in quattro ambiti: dal rilevamento elettrochimico di una singola molecola al monitoraggio ottico in tempo reale nelle piattaforme «organ-on-chip» (organi-su-chip).

La prima parte riguarda i nanopori: minuscoli fori in una membrana di silicio, talmente piccoli che una singola molecola di DNA li occupa quasi interamente. Facendo passare la molecola attraverso il poro, è possibile identificarla. Produrre fori di questa dimensione, pochi miliardesimi di metro, è una sfida tecnologica che oggi richiede strumenti costosi e operatori specializzati. Questa tesi mostra come, sfruttando un fenomeno chimico autolimitante finora non riportato in letteratura, sia possibile fabbricare questi fori in parallelo su larga scala.

La seconda parte è dedicata ai cristalli fotonici biocompatibili, strutture capaci di manipolare la luce e realizzate con materiali compatibili con l'organismo umano, come la seta. La tesi mostra un metodo per introdurre nanostrutture all’interno della seta che permettono di scegliere la lunghezza d’onda della luce trasmessa, aprendo la strada a sensori ottici impiantabili.

La terza parte è dedicata ai transistor elettrochimici organici, dispositivi che permettono di misurare molecole come il glucosio o componenti del sudore, e che potrebbero contribuire alla prossima generazione di sensori indossabili a basso costo. Per definire le geometrie di questi sensori, è solitamente necessario ricorrere all’uso di una camera bianca. Questa tesi presenta una tecnica basata sulla scrittura laser che raggiunge la stessa precisione, ma al di fuori della camera bianca.

L'ultima parte è dedicata agli organi-su-chip, piattaforme miniaturizzate dove cellule umane vengono coltivate per ricreare il funzionamento di tessuti ed organi. Queste piattaforme potrebbero ridurre il ricorso alla sperimentazione animale per testare nuovi farmaci. La tesi sviluppa un sensore ottico a basso costo, in grado di monitorare in tempo reale le funzioni vitali delle cellule, tramite parametri come il pH e l'ossigeno.

Il filo conduttore di tutto il lavoro è uno: comprendere a fondo il principio fisico del sensore, le proprietà dei materiali, e le possibilità degli strumenti a disposizione. Questa comprensione permette di sviluppare processi di fabbricazione più semplici, più economici, e più pronti a uscire dal laboratorio rispetto agli approcci tradizionali.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. p. 87
Series
TRITA-EECS-AVL ; 2026:35
National Category
Nanotechnology Nanotechnology for/in Life Science and Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-381000 (URN)978-91-8106-585-5 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-06-09, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/63919672218, F3, Lindstedtsvägen 26, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 20260507

Available from: 2026-05-08 Created: 2026-05-07 Last updated: 2026-05-12Bibliographically approved

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De Ferrari, FabioEnrico, AlessandroLeva, Chrysovalantou VasilikiRaja, Shyamprasad NatarajanHerland, AnnaNiklaus, FrankStemme, Göran

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