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Hierarchical structure in lignins and their influence in bio-based thermoset production: Case study of carboxylated lignins and epoxidized oil
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Fibre- and Polymer Technology, Wood Chemistry and Pulp Technology.ORCID iD: 0009-0002-4215-0595
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Fibre- and Polymer Technology, Coating Technology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Wallenberg Wood Science Center.ORCID iD: 0009-0001-3837-2550
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Fibre- and Polymer Technology, Coating Technology. Deutsches-Elektronen Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, 22607, Hamburg, Germany.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6940-6012
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Fibre- and Polymer Technology, Coating Technology. KTH, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), Centres, Wallenberg Wood Science Center.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-3201-5138
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2026 (English)In: Reactive & functional polymers, ISSN 1381-5148, E-ISSN 1873-166X, Vol. 227, article id 106858Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Chemical modification of lignin is widely used to improve its reactivity and solubility in bio-based thermosetting systems. However, the relationship between apparent solubility and true network compatibility remains poorly understood. Here, a hierarchical, multi-scale approach was used to study how lignin structure evolves from molecular modification to nanoscale organization and, ultimately, thermoset performance in fully bio-based epoxy networks derived from epoxidized linseed oil (ELO). Carboxymethylated and oxidative carboxylated lignins were examined as case studies to elucidate how different modification pathways link molecular structure, nanoscale organization, and thermoset performance. Both modification routes increased carboxylic acid content and enabled ester bond formation with ELO, as confirmed by FTIR. Despite these similarities, wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) revealed distinct differences in nanoscale organization. Carboxymethylation caused a moderate change in T-shaped π–π stacking interactions, while preserving a substantial fraction of sandwich π–π stacking, resulting in partial solubility. In contrast, oxidative carboxylation produced a pronounced expansion of T-shaped distances, reflecting a more open and weakly interconnected aromatic network, leading to complete solubility but weaker network cohesion after curing. DSC and FTIR confirmed curing across all systems, although variations in thermal transitions reflected differences in resin-lignin interactions. The resulting materials formed brittle thermosets with heterogeneous network structures. NMR analysis further indicated the occurrence of side reactions, including epoxide ring opening by lignin hydroxyl groups. Leaching tests further indicated that increased carboxylic acid content enhanced solvent accessibility, particularly in oxidized lignin systems. Incorporation of triacetin as a bio-based plasticizer yielded free-standing thermosets suitable for thermomechanical characterization, confirming network formation and structure–property relationships consistent with the multi-scale structural analysis. Overall, this work demonstrates that increasing lignin functionality and solubility alone is insufficient to achieve high-performance bio-based epoxy thermosets, highlighting the critical role of nanoscale packing and short-range order in determining macroscopic properties.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV , 2026. Vol. 227, article id 106858
Keywords [en]
Carboxymethylation, Oxidative carboxylation, Bio-based thermosets, Epoxidized linseed oil, X-ray scattering
National Category
Organic Chemistry Polymer Chemistry
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387300DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2026.106858ISI: 001815571200001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-105043580922OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-387300DiVA, id: diva2:2093718
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2021-05739
Note

QC 20261006

Available from: 2026-08-19 Created: 2026-08-19 Last updated: 2026-10-06Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Lignin-based Thermosets: From Structure-Reactivity Relationships to Degradable Material Design
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Lignin-based Thermosets: From Structure-Reactivity Relationships to Degradable Material Design
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Carboxymethylation and oxidative carboxylation of four available lignins were investigated as routes to introduce carboxylic acid functionality for crosslinking with epoxidized linseed oil. Hardwood lignins showed consistently higher reactivity toward both routes, explained with DFT calculations and conformational modeling linking the molecular conformation of syringyl-rich lignin to greater hydroxy group accessibility. WAXS analysis showed that oxidative carboxylation disrupted supramolecular packing more extensively than carboxymethylation, correlating with the complete solubility of oxidized lignins and homogeneous mixing with the epoxide matrix.

A feasibility study confirmed crosslinked network formation but revealed phase separation and brittleness as key limitations. Incorporating oxidized lignin with PEG-400 yielded thermosets with approximately 90% bio-based content, gel contents of 88–90%, glass transition temperatures of 93–109 °C, and hydrophobic surfaces. Both thermosets degraded completely within 48 hours under alkaline conditions, while remaining stable under near-physiological conditions for 14 days, consistent with a surface-initiated erosion mechanism.

These findings establish a structure-property framework linking lignin molecular architecture to modification efficiency, thermoset performance, and controlled end-of-life degradation.

Abstract [sv]

Karboximetylering och oxidativ karboxylering av fyra tillgängliga ligniner undersöktes som metoder för att introducera karboxylsyrafunktionalitet för tvärbindning med epoxiderad linolja. Lövvedsligniner visade konsekvent högre reaktivitet för båda metoderna, vilket förklarades med DFT-beräkningar och konformationsmodellering som kopplar den molekylära konformationen hos syringylrikt lignin till större tillgänglighet av hydroxigrupper. WAXS-analys visade att oxidativ karboxylering störde den supramolekylära packningen i högre grad än karboximetylering, vilket korrelerade med fullständig löslighet hos oxiderade ligniner och homogen blandning med epoxidmatrisen.

En genomförbarhetsstudie bekräftade tvärbunden nätverksbildning men avslöjade fasseparation och sprödhet som centrala begränsningar. Inkorporering av oxiderat lignin med PEG-400 gav härdplaster med ungefär 90 % biobaserat innehåll, gelhalt på 88–90 %, glasövergångstemperaturer på 93–109 °C och hydrofoba ytor. Båda härdplasterna degraderades fullständigt inom 48 timmar under alkaliska förhållanden och förblev stabila under nära fysiologiska förhållanden i 14 dagar, förenligt med en ytinitierad erosionsmekanism.

Dessa fynd etablerar ett struktur-egenskapsramverk som kopplar ligninets molekylära arkitektur till modifieringseffektivitet, härdplastprestanda och kontrollerad nedbrytning.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. p. 74
Series
TRITA-CBH-FOU ; 2026:33
Keywords
lignin, carboxymethylation, oxidative carboxylation, thermosets, hydrolytic degradation, bio-based materials, lignin, karboximetylering, oxidativ karboxylering, härdplast, hydrolytisk nedbrytning, biobaserade material
National Category
Organic Chemistry Polymer Chemistry
Research subject
Fibre and Polymer Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387305 (URN)978-91-8106-668-5 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-09-17, F3, Lindstedtvägen 26, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2021-05739
Note

QC 20260821

Available from: 2026-08-21 Created: 2026-08-19 Last updated: 2026-08-21Bibliographically approved

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Andriani, FikaBrandt, LouiseRoth, Stephan V.Johansson, MatsLawoko, Martin

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