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The elephant in the room - A comparative study of uncertainties in carbon offsets
KTH, School of Chemical Science and Engineering (CHE), Chemical Engineering and Technology, Energy Processes.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-2878-8656
KTH, School of Chemical Science and Engineering (CHE), Chemical Engineering and Technology, Energy Processes.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-3315-4201
School of Sustainable Development of Society and Technology, Mälardalen University, Västerås, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-0300-0762
2016 (English)In: Environmental Science and Policy, ISSN 1462-9011, E-ISSN 1873-6416, Vol. 56, p. 32-38Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Resource type
Text
Abstract [en]

The clean development mechanism (CDM) is a flexible mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol, which makes it possible for developed countries to offset their emissions of greenhouse gases through investing in climate change mitigation projects in developing countries. When the mitigation benefit of a CDM project is quantified, measurable uncertainties arise that can be minimised using established statistical methods. In addition, some unmeasurable uncertainties arise, such as the rebound effect of demand-side energy efficiency projects. Many project types related to land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) have been excluded from the CDM in part because of the high degree of statistical uncertainty in measurements of the carbon sink and risk of non-permanence. However, recent discussions within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have opened up for the possibility of including more LULUCF activities in the future. In the light of this discussion, we highlight different aspects of uncertainties in LULUCF projects (e.g. the risk of non-permanence and the size of the carbon sink) in relation to other CDM project categories such as renewables and demand-side energy efficiency. We quantify the uncertainties, compare the magnitudes of the uncertainties in different project categories and conclude that uncertainties could be just as significant in CDM project categories such as renewables as in LULUCF projects. The CDM is a useful way of including and engaging developing countries in climate change mitigation and could be a good source of financial support for LULUCF mitigation activities. Given their enormous mitigation potential, we argue that additional LULUCF activities should be included in the CDM and other future climate policy instruments. Furthermore, we note that Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) are currently being submitted to the UNFCCC by developing countries. Unfortunately, the under-representation of LULUCF in comparison to its potential is evident in the NAMAs submitted so far, just as it has been in the CDM. Capacity building under the CDM may influence NAMAs and there is a risk of transferring the view on uncertainties to NAMAs.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2016. Vol. 56, p. 32-38
Keywords [en]
Carbon sequestration, Clean development mechanism, Emission reduction, Land use, Land-use change and forestry, Nationally appropriate mitigation actions, Rebound effect
National Category
Other Environmental Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-180934DOI: 10.1016/j.envsci.2015.11.004ISI: 000369195700004Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-84946887767OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-180934DiVA, id: diva2:897633
Funder
Sida - Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, AKT-2010-040Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth
Note

QC 20160126. QC 20160304

Available from: 2016-01-26 Created: 2016-01-25 Last updated: 2024-03-18Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. An evaluation of solar powered irrigation as carbon offset projects
Open this publication in new window or tab >>An evaluation of solar powered irrigation as carbon offset projects
2016 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Carbon offsets have been developed as one tool to incentivise investments by developed nations in climate change mitigation activities in developing countries. The carbon offsets can be used towards the countries’ own mitigation targets but are also meant to benefit developing countries by providing a pathway to clean development.

Photovoltaic water pumping (PVWP) technology is a solution to use PV for irrigation, which can be used to restore degraded grasslands and help farmers adapt to climate change. Restoration of degraded grasslands increases the production of grass and will therefore increase the amount of carbon in the soil, a process that may mitigate climate change. However, poor farmers often have limited access to irrigation technology and this thesis assesses how carbon offsets may bring revenues to increase adaption of PVWP technology in remote areas of the Chinese grasslands.

PV modules can be used to mitigate climate change in different ways; the most common is to produce electricity to replace fossil fuel power capacity. The novelty of this thesis is that it assesses the alternative mitigation possibilities for the PVWP project proposed here. Further, consideration of water constraints that limit the applicability of the technology and a framework to assess the trade-offs between potential downstream water impacts and environmental co-benefits of the project add to the novelty of this thesis. Policy barriers for the project will also be considered.

 Used to restore severely degraded grasslands, PVWP projects show high carbon sequestration potential and successfully compete with grid electricity as carbon offset projects. A case is analysed and it shows that the carbon market could play a role in increasing the feasibility of PVWP projects. However, water issues make project implementation very site-specific and some indicators to determine feasibility is proposed to be blue water availability, evaporation recycling ratio and water productivity. Water use must also be looked at with respect to climate, food and energy security, calling for a nexus approach to evaluate the project suitability. In May 2016, grassland management projects are excluded from the Clean Development Mechanism to the Kyoto Protocol, and this limits project implementation to the voluntary markets.

Abstract [sv]

Avhandlingen är ämnad att läsas av beslutsfattare inom klimatområdet samt aktörer på de olika klimatkompensationsmarknaderna.

Klimatkompensation har utvecklats som ett verktyg för att stimulera industriländers investeringar i klimatprojekt i utvecklingsländer. Klimatkompensation kan användas för att nå industriländernas egna klimatmål men är också tänkta att gynna utvecklingsländer genom att tillhandahålla en ”ren” utvecklingsmöjlighet.

Solcellsdrivna vattenpumpar (eng. photovoltaic water pumping: PVWP) är en teknik för att använda solceller för bevattning. Tekniken kan användas för att restaurera degraderade gräsmarker och för att hjälpa jordbrukare anpassa sig till klimatförändringarna. Restaurering av gräsmarker ökar produktionen av gräs vilket medför ökad mängden kol i marken, en process som kan mildra klimatförändringarna. Men fattiga bönder har ofta begränsad tillgång till bevattningsteknik och denna avhandling utvärderar hur klimatkompensation kan ge intäkter för att öka användningen av PVWP i avlägsna delar på den kinesiska slätten.

Solceller kan användas för att mildra klimatförändringarna på olika sätt och vanligast är att producera el för att ersätta fossila bränslen. Det är därför viktigt att titta på alternativkostnaden för PVWP-projekten som föreslås här. Vidare begränsar vattentillgången projekten och ett ramverk för att tydliggöra avvägningar mellan vattenrelaterade problem och miljömässiga fördelarna med ett projekt är nödvändigt. Klimatpolitiska styrmedel sätter också upp vissa begränsningar för projekten.

Om PVWP används för att återställa mycket degraderade gräsmarker, visar projekten hög klimatnytta och de kan framgångsrikt konkurrera med solel till nätet som klimatkompensationsprojekt. En fallstudie visar att klimatkompensationsmarknaden skulle kunna spela en viss roll för att öka antalet PVWP-projekt. Däremot gör vattenfrågan projektens geografiska plats viktig och indikatorer för att avgöra genomförbarheten föreslås vara ”blåvattentillgång”, ”förångningsåtervinning” och ”vattenproduktivitet”. Vattenanvändningen måste också ses i förhållande till klimat, mat- och energisäkerhet, vilket kräver en nexusstrategi för att utvärdera projekten. I skrivande stund (maj 2016) är projekt rörande skötsel av gräsmarker exkluderade från mekanismen för ren utveckling (CDM) till Kyotoprotokollet och detta begränsar projekten till de frivilliga klimat-kompensationsmarknaderna.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2016. p. 86
Series
TRITA-CHE-Report, ISSN 1654-1081 ; 2016:29
Keywords
carbon offset, carbon sequestration, clean development mechanism, climate change adaptation, desertification, solar power water pumping
National Category
Other Chemical Engineering
Research subject
Chemical Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-188562 (URN)978-91-7729-057-5 (ISBN)
Presentation
2016-08-30, Seminarierum plan 6, Teknikringen 42, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Projects
Demonstration and Scale-Up of Photovoltaic Solar Water Pumping for the Conservation of Grassland and Farmland in China
Funder
Sida - Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, AKT-2010-040Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth
Note

QC 20160711

Available from: 2016-07-11 Created: 2016-06-14 Last updated: 2022-06-22Bibliographically approved
2. Assessing Carbon Dioxide Removal methods amid uncertainty: soil carbon sequestration, biochar and harvested wood products as methods for climate change mitigation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Assessing Carbon Dioxide Removal methods amid uncertainty: soil carbon sequestration, biochar and harvested wood products as methods for climate change mitigation
2023 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Measures to sequester carbon dioxide (CO2) away from the atmosphere have become increasingly important in the discussion of which methods humans can employ to limit global warming. These measures, which are broad and varied, fall under the umbrella of Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) methods. CDR methods can be used to reach so-called net-zero targets, since targets are politically determined to allow for CDR methods to compensate for some emissions that are hard to abate.

Several CDR methods provide co-benefits in addition to mitigating climate change. They are therefore not pure climate measures. Using an interdisciplinary approach and a methodology including quantitative estimates and interview data, I investigate how some important CDR methods with co-benefits may be assessed and potentially supported by policy. Soil carbon sequestration using solar powered irrigation systems in the drylands of China, biochar-producing cookstoves in Tanzania, and biochar and wood-based panel production using forestry by-products in Sweden are CDR methods that I assess in their local context in this thesis.

To increase the ambitions towards reaching the climate goals set out in the Paris Agreement, some countries, such as Sweden, are looking to invest in international mitigation activities. This thesis illustrates that there is a heavy focus on measurable parameters when estimating the outcome of international climate change mitigation activities. However, unmeasurable uncertainties, such as political issues and economic rebound effects, tend to be neglected. These unmeasurable uncertainties are likely to be important and cannot be neglected if international mitigation activities, for example under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, are to be used to reach net-zero targets.

Designing policy instruments that seek to encourage the use of CDR methods with co-benefits based on their ability to store CO2 may cause unintended consequences, such as inefficient use of resources. In addition, many of the co-benefits are not yet supported by scientific studies, which complicates policymaking. Despite often being considered win-win solutions, CDR methods with co-benefits face resistance since they often challenge current practices. In this thesis, I suggest various approaches to manage these uncertainties and challenges.

Abstract [sv]

Åtgärder för att lagra koldioxid (CO2) har blivit allt viktigare när metoder för att begränsa den globala uppvärmningen diskuteras. Det finns en rad åtgärder som är relativt olika varandra men som alla faller under paraplyet koldioxidinfångning (CDR). CDR kan användas för att nå s.k. nettonollmål, eftersom målen är politiskt utformade för att möjliggöra kompensation för vissa utsläpp som bedöms vara svåra att minska.

Flera CDR-metoder har sidonyttor utöver att minska klimatförändringarna. De är alltså inte rena klimatåtgärder. Med hjälp av ett tvärvetenskapligt tillvägagångssätt med en metodik där kvantitativa uppskattningar kombineras med intervjuer och andra kvalitativa metoder, undersöker jag hur några viktiga CDR-metoder med sidonyttor kan bedömas och potentiellt stödjas med politiska styrmedel. Kolinbindning i marken med hjälp av solcellsdrivna bevattningssystem i Kina, biokolproducerande spisar i Tanzania, samt biokol och produktion av träpaneler med hjälp av rester från skogsbruket i Sverige är de CDR-metoder som jag utvärderar i deras lokala sammanhang i denna avhandling.

För att öka ambitionerna och nå de klimatmål som antagits inom Parisavtalet planerar vissa länder, t.ex. Sverige, att investera i internationella samarbetsåtgärder. I avhandlingen illustreras att det finns ett stort fokus på mätbara parametrar när resultatet av internationella projekt för att minska klimatförändringarna uppskattas. Detta fokus tenderar att försumma osäkerheter som är omätbara, såsom politiska frågor och ekonomiska rekyleffekter. Dessa omätbara osäkerheter är sannolikt viktiga och kan inte försummas om internationella klimatprojekt, till exempel under Artikel 6 i Parisavtalet, ska användas för att nå klimatmål.

Att utforma styrmedel som syftar till att stödja användningen av CDR-metoder med sidonyttor baserat på deras förmåga att lagra CO2 kan få en del oavsiktliga följder, såsom ineffektivt resursanvändande. Många av de påstådda sidonyttorna stöds dessutom ännu inte av vetenskapliga studier, vilket komplicerar beslutsfattandet. Trots att de ofta anses vara s.k. vinn-vinn-lösningar, möter CDR-metoder med sidonyttor motstånd eftersom de ofta utmanar etablerade strukturer. I denna avhandling föreslår jag olika tillvägagångssätt för att hantera dessa osäkerheter och utmaningar.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2023. p. 96
Series
TRITA-CBH-FOU ; 2023:4
Keywords
Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR); Negative Emissions Technologies (NETs); Soil Organic Carbon; Biochar; Harvested Wood Products (HWP); Socio-technical systems; Strategic Niche Management (SNM)
National Category
Other Social Sciences not elsewhere specified Other Chemical Engineering
Research subject
Chemical Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-323520 (URN)978-91-8040-487-7 (ISBN)
Public defence
2023-03-10, Kollegiesalen, Brinellvägen 8, Zoom: https://kth-se.zoom.us/meeting/register/u5Ekce2gqjoqG9zFstQCyo8ZsEiKWIRjKcfI, Stockholm, 14:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Projects
Demonstration and Scale-Up of Photovoltaic Solar Water Pumping for the Conservation of Grassland and Farmland in China. SIDA Project No.: AKT-2010-040.Opening the portfolio of negative emissions technologies: A comprehensive study of social, techno-economic and ethical dimensions of biomass-based NETs in Sweden and Tanzania
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas
Note

QC 2023-02-15

Available from: 2023-02-15 Created: 2023-02-15 Last updated: 2025-05-05Bibliographically approved

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