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Experimental Study on Steam Explosions in Chemical Solutions and Seawater
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Physics. (Nuclear Power Safety)ORCID iD: 0000-0003-2307-0709
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Steam explosions may be encountered in severe accidents of light water reactors (LWRs), which are thermal detonations caused by rapid and intense vaporization of the coolant upon its direct contact with the core melt (corium). Motivated by the interest in understanding and mitigation of severe accident progression, many studies have been conducted to investigate the steam explosion phenomena during severe accidents. However, most of the previous studies did not consider the effect of chemical additives in the coolant of nuclear power plants, such as additions of H3BO3, NaOH and Na3PO4 for water chemistry control, and direct utilization of seawater (NaCl additive) under an extreme condition like the Fukushima accident. The present thesis work is motivated to fill the knowledge gap concerning the impacts of chemical additives (H3BO3, NaOH, Na3PO4, and NaCl) on steam explosions.  

The primary objective of the present research is to obtain characteristics of steam explosions in seawater and chemical solutions of H3BO3/NaOH/Na3PO4 with prototypical concentrations. To achieve this goal, a series of experiments have been carried out in the MISTEE experimental platform at KTH, involving single droplet and multiple droplets falling into a variety of coolant pool filled with seawater or chemical solutions of H3BO3/NaOH/Na3PO4 additives. The thesis work consists of four parts as follows.

The first part is a description of the experimental methodology developed in the present study. Two experimental facilities, dubbed MISTEE-CE and MISTEE-SEA of respective mechanical plug and aerodynamic levitation for melt delivery, were designed on the MISTEE platform. Both setups were equipped with high-speed cameras for visualization, a pressure sensor for dynamic pressure measurement, and a fragment catcher for debris collection. A double-crucible design was employed to enable induction heating while avoiding melt contamination. The aerodynamic levitation system was implemented in MISTEE-SEA to reduce the disturbance of the mechanical plug. All chemical solutions were prepared in the laboratory with degassed deionized water. Tin (Sn) was chosen as the melt material due to benign properties suitable for safe handling in the laboratory.

The second part is the presentation of visual observations and parameters selected to characterize steam explosions. The visualization includes the phenomena of droplet-coolant interactions and steam explosion occurrences. A molten single droplet falling into the coolant pool with deionized water or chemical solution might experience one of the three typical phenomena: deformation without fragmentation, minor fragmentation, or spontaneous steam explosion. In contrast, a multi-droplet test might involve merging and multiple explosions of droplets, resulting in a more complex set of phenomena. The quench depth and the lateral deformation ratio were defined and used to analyze the dynamic process of a single droplet in the coolant, while the peak pressure was employed to compare steam explosion energetics. In addition, the size distribution of debris particles was scrutinized.

The third part is a summary and highlights of the experimental study on single-droplet steam explosion in different chemical solutions, using 1g of melt sample. The results revealed that the H3BO3 additive had little impact on steam explosion when the H3BO3 concentration was lower than 1.2 wt.%, but the risk of steam explosion in 3.2 wt.% H3BO3 solution was higher. The addition of NaOH and Na3PO4 to an H3BO3 solution significantly offset the influence on steam explosion. This suggests that the presence of PO43- and H+ ions play a significant role in spontaneous steam explosions. Additionally, seawater enhanced the occurrence of spontaneous steam explosions, with a clear correlation between increasing salinity and a higher likelihood of steam explosion. Compared to deionized water, chemical solutions (including seawater) caused more pronounced deformation in molten droplets at equivalent depths prior to direct contact of melt with coolant. Furthermore, the peak pressures of steam explosions in chemical solutions had the potential to reach notably higher values than those in deionized water. The chemical solutions except for the one of 1.2 wt.% H3BO3 tended to produce higher fractions of finer debris particles. 

The fourth part is about the experimental results of an investigation on steam explosion involving multiple droplets falling into deionized water and chemical solutions, using 5 g and 20 g of melt samples, respectively. It was found that under identical test conditions, the peak pressure of steam explosion increased with melt sample mass, resulting in a noticeably higher fraction of fine debris particles in the case of 20 g melt sample. The steam explosion location was concentrated within a shallower range when using chemical solutions instead of deionized water. In contrast to single-droplet experiments, the influence of the chemical solutions on the steam explosion was diminishing in the tests with multiple droplets.

Abstract [sv]

Ångexplosioner kan uppstå vid svåra haverier i lättvattenreaktorer (LWR), vilka är termiska detonationer orsakade av snabb och intensiv förångning av kylvätska vid direkt kontakt med härdsmälta (corium). Intresset av att förstå och mildra händelseutvecklingen vid svåra haverier har drivit fram många studier som syftar till att undersöka ångexplosionsfenomenen vid svåra haverier. De flesta av de tidigare studierna tog dock inte hänsyn till effekten av kemiska tillsatser i kylvätskan i kärnkraftverk, såsom tillsatser av borsyra, NaOH och Na3PO4 för kontroll av vattenkemi, och direkt nyttjande av havsvatten (NaCl-tillsats) vid extrema situationer som vid Fukushima-olyckan. Detta doktorsavhandling är motiverat att fylla kunskapsluckan om effekterna av de kemiska tillsatserna (H3BO3, NaOH, Na3PO4 och NaCl) på ångexplosioner.

Det primära syftet med föreliggande forskning är att erhålla egenskaper hos ångexplosioner i havsvatten och kemiska lösningar av H3BO3/NaOH/Na3PO4 med prototypiska koncentrationer. För att uppnå detta mål har en serie experiment genomförts i MISTEE-experimentplattformen vid KTH, där enstaka droppar och flera droppar faller ner i en mängd olika kylvätskebassänger fyllda med havsvatten eller kemiska lösningar av H3BO3/NaOH/Na3PO4. Doktorsavhandlingen består av fyra delar enligt följande.

Den första delen är en beskrivning av den experimentella metodik som utvecklats i denna studie. Två experimentanläggningar, kallade MISTEE-CE och MISTEE-SEA av respektive mekanisk plugg och aerodynamisk levitation för smälttillförsel, designades på MISTEE-plattformen. Båda uppsättningarna var utrustade med höghastighetskameror för visualisering, en trycksensor för dynamisk tryckmätning och en fragmentfångare för skräpuppsamling. En design med dubbeldegel användes för att möjliggöra induktionsuppvärmning samtidigt som man undviker smältkontamination. Det aerodynamiska levitationssystemet implementerades i MISTEE-SEA för att minska störningen av den mekaniska pluggen. Alla kemiska lösningar framställdes i laboratoriet med avgasat avjoniserat vatten. Tennet (Sn) valdes som smältmaterial på grund av godartade egenskaper lämpade för säker hantering i laboratoriet.

Den andra delen är en redovisning av visuella observationer och parametrar valda för att karakterisera ångexplosioner. Visualiseringen inkluderar  förekomsten av ångexplosioner samt fenomen med växelverkan mellan smältdroppar och kylvätska. En smältdroppe som faller ner i kylvätskebadet med avjoniserat vatten eller kemisk lösning kan genomgå ett av de tre typiska fenomenen: deformation utan fragmentering, mindre fragmentering eller spontan ångexplosion. Ett test med flertal droppar kan dock innefatta sammanslagning och ett flertal explosioner av droppar, vilket resulterar i en mer komplex uppsättning fenomen. Avkylningsdjupet och det laterala deformationsförhållandet definierades och användes för att analysera den dynamiska processen för en enskild smältdroppe i kylvätskan, medan det högsta trycket användes för att jämföra ångexplosionsenergi. Dessutom undersöktes fördelningen av partikelstorlekar i smältesterna.

Den tredje delen är en sammanfattning och en redogörelse av intressanta observationer under experimenten med ångexplosioner med en enskild smältdroppe i olika kemiska lösningar och med 1 g smältprov. Resultaten visade att borsyratillsatsen hade liten inverkan på ångexplosion när borsyrakoncentrationen var lägre än 1,2 viktprocent, men risken för ångexplosioner var högre med 3,2 viktprocent borsyralösning. Tillsatsen av NaOH och Na3PO4 till en borsyralösning begränsar avsevärt inverkan på ångexplosioner. Detta tyder på att närvaron av PO43- och H+-joner har en betydande roll för spontana ångexplosioner. Dessutom medförde havsvatten en ökad förekomst av spontana ångexplosioner, med en tydlig korrelation mellan ökande salthalt och en större sannolikhet för ångexplosion. Jämfört med avjoniserat vatten medförde kemiska lösningar (inklusive havsvatten) mer uttalad deformation i smältdroppar på samma djup, innan smälta kom i direktkontakt med kylvätska. Vidare hade de högsta trycken vid ångexplosioner i kemiska lösningar potential att nå betydligt högre värden än de i avjoniserat vatten. De kemiska lösningarna, förutom den med 1,2 viktprocent H3BO3, tenderade till att bilda en större andel finfördelade partiklar av smältresterna.

Den fjärde delen handlar om de experimentella resultaten av en ångexplosionstudie med flertal smältdroppar som faller ner i avjoniserat vatten och kemiska lösningar, med 5 g respektive 20 g smältprover. Det visade sig att under identiska testförhållanden ökade det högsta trycket vid ångexplosionerna med smältprovets massa, vilket resulterade i en märkbart större andel finfördelade smältrestpartiklar i fallet med 20 g smältprov. Ångexplosionerna var koncentrerade till ett grundare område när man använde kemiska lösningar istället för avjoniserat vatten. I jämförelse med experimenten med en enskild droppe förminskades inverkan av de kemiska lösningarna på ångexplosioner i testerna med flertal droppar.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm, Sweden: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2024. , p. 53
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2024:06
Keywords [en]
Severe accident; fuel coolant interactions; steam explosion; chemical additives; seawater
Keywords [sv]
Svåra haverier; bränsle-kylmedelsinteraktioner; ångexplosion; kemiska tillsatser; havsvatten
National Category
Engineering and Technology
Research subject
Physics, Nuclear Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-343014ISBN: 978-91-8040-835-6 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-343014DiVA, id: diva2:1834308
Public defence
2024-02-21, FA31, Albanova University Center, Roslagstullsbacken 21, Stockholm, 09:30 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 2024-02-05

Available from: 2024-02-05 Created: 2024-02-02 Last updated: 2024-02-12Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. An experimental study on droplet quench and steam explosion in boric acid solutions
Open this publication in new window or tab >>An experimental study on droplet quench and steam explosion in boric acid solutions
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2023 (English)In: Progress in nuclear energy (New series), ISSN 0149-1970, E-ISSN 1878-4224, Vol. 166, article id 104970Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Boric acid (H3BO3) is widely adopted as an additive in the coolant of light water reactors for reactivity control, but its effect on fuel coolant interactions (FCI) during severe accidents (especially on steam explosion) was rarely investigated. To examine the effect of the boric acid additive in coolant on steam explosion, a series of molten droplet-coolant interaction tests using H3BO3 solutions (with concentration ranging from 0-3.2% by weight) is carried out in the present study. The characteristics of melt-coolant interactions are the occurrence probability of typical phenomena (no fragmentation, minor fragmentation, or spontaneous steam explosion), lateral deformation ratio, quench depth, pressure impulse and debris particle size distribution. The statistical data of such characteristics are obtained through repeating 20 runs of the same test category. The experimental results show that the H3BO3 addition in coolant has various impacts on the above-mentioned characteristics of melt-coolant interactions, depending on the H3BO3 concentration. In particular, the probability of steam explosion sightly decreases as the H3BO3 concentration increases from zero to 1.2 wt.%, but significantly increases as the H3BO3 concentration further increases to 3.2 wt.% trough 2.2 wt.%. Namely, the inhibiting effect of boric acid on steam explosion is diminishing with increasing H3BO3 concentration beyond 1.2 wt.%. It is also found that both melt and coolant temperatures are crucial parameters impacting the likelihood and energetics of steam explosion.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2023
Keywords
Fuel-coolant interactions, Steam explosion, Boric acid concentration
National Category
Circular Food Process Technologies Food Biotechnology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-341977 (URN)10.1016/j.pnucene.2023.104970 (DOI)001125104200001 ()2-s2.0-85177835190 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20240109

Available from: 2024-01-09 Created: 2024-01-09 Last updated: 2025-02-20Bibliographically approved
2. An experimental study on the effect of chemical additives in coolant on steam explosion
Open this publication in new window or tab >>An experimental study on the effect of chemical additives in coolant on steam explosion
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2024 (English)In: International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, ISSN 0017-9310, E-ISSN 1879-2189, Vol. 218, article id 124818Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In assessment of severe accident risk in light water reactors (LWRs), steam explosion is a nonnegligible phenomenon following a relocation of core melt (corium) into coolant, and thus various research efforts have been paid to steam explosion. There had been numerous studies showing that the occurrence of steam explosions is influenced by several factors such as melt and coolant temperatures, melt materials, non-condensable gasses, etc. However, most of the existing experiments used deionized (DI) water or tap water as coolant, with little consideration of the effect of chemicals (e.g. boric acid, sodium hydroxide, sodium phosphate) commonly applied in reactor coolant. To examine the effect of the chemical additives in coolant on steam explosion, the present study performs a series of molten Tin droplet-coolant interaction tests using DI water and different chemical solutions, including H3BO3 solutions, NaOH + H3BO3 neutral solutions, and Na3PO4 + H3BO3 neutral solutions. The experimental results show that adding NaOH and Na3PO4 in boric acid solution significantly affects the occurrence probability of spontaneous steam explosion, because of the presence of PO43− and H+ ions. When different solutions have equivalent concentrations of H3BO3, the peak pressure values of the spontaneous steam explosion of Sn droplets are similar among various solutions. Compared with those in DI water, steam explosion in the chemical solutions occurs predominantly within a narrow range of depth from 28 mm to 40 mm and produces a much higher peak pressure. This implies that more energetic steam explosions may occur in the chemical solutions.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier Ltd, 2024
Keywords
Chemical additives, Fuel-coolant interactions, Severe accident, Steam explosion, Water chemistry
National Category
Energy Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-339039 (URN)10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.124818 (DOI)001102446000001 ()2-s2.0-85174702109 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20231215

Available from: 2023-11-29 Created: 2023-11-29 Last updated: 2024-02-02Bibliographically approved
3. An Experimental Study on the Effect of Coolant Salinity on Steam Explosion
Open this publication in new window or tab >>An Experimental Study on the Effect of Coolant Salinity on Steam Explosion
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

The steam explosion plays an essential role in the safety analysis of light water reactors (LWRs). Some studies have demonstrated that the occurrence of steam explosions is dependent on many factors such as melt and coolant temperatures, melt and coolant properties, non-condensable gases, etc. After the Fukushima accident, seawater as an emergency coolant and its impact on fuel coolant interactions are receiving attention. However, there is still little knowledge of the impact of seawater on steam explosions. The present study is intended to examine the effect of coolant salinity on steam explosion through a series of tests with single molten droplet falling in different coolant pools (DI water, and seawater at different salinities from 7.7 g/kg to 35 g/kg). The experimental results reveal that the salinity of coolant significantly influences the probability of spontaneous steam explosion of molten tin droplets. The probability of steam explosion generally increases with increasing salinity from 0 to 17.5 g/kg. The molten droplet in seawater experiences more pronounced deformation at the same depth before the vapor film of the droplet collapses. What’s more, the peak pressure generated by the steam explosion in seawater is notably higher than that in DI water. The fragmentation of molten tin droplets after the explosion is enhanced accordingly.

Keywords
Severe accident, fuel-coolant interactions, steam explosion, seawater
National Category
Engineering and Technology
Research subject
Physics, Nuclear Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-342999 (URN)
Note

QC 20240508

Available from: 2024-02-02 Created: 2024-02-02 Last updated: 2024-05-08Bibliographically approved
4. An Experimental Study on Steam Explosion of Multiple Droplets in Different Chemical Solutions
Open this publication in new window or tab >>An Experimental Study on Steam Explosion of Multiple Droplets in Different Chemical Solutions
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Considering the severity of possible steam explosion in severe accidents of light water reactors (LWRs), a series of tests were carried out in the MISTEE facility at KTH to investigate steam explosion characteristics as multiple molten droplets of tin were falling through coolant pools containing deionized water, boric acid solution, boric-acid-sodium-phosphate neutral solution and seawater, separately. The experimental results revealed distinct and complex characteristics of steam explosion of multiple droplets, which were not observed in previous single-droplet steam explosion experiments. The tin melt samples of 5 g and 20 g were employed to formulate different numbers of multiple droplets. In the tests with 5g melt samples, the steam explosion of multiple droplets was more energetic at a deeper explosion location - a similar trend was found in the single-droplet steam explosion tests with 1 g melt. However, the tests of 20 g samples did not show a clear trend in a wide range of explosion depth. The peak pressure and impulse increased with the increasing mass of the melted sample. The steam explosion occurred more closely to the coolant pool surfaces in the seawater and chemical solutions than in deionized water. Steam explosion intensity was significantly reduced in a neutral solution containing 1.2 wt.% boric acid and sodium phosphate. The influence of the chemical solutions on steam explosion was diminishing in the tests with multiple droplets.

Keywords
Severe accident, fuel-coolant interaction, steam explosion, multiple droplets, water chemistry
National Category
Analytical Chemistry
Research subject
Physics, Nuclear Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-343011 (URN)
Note

QC 20240215

Available from: 2024-02-02 Created: 2024-02-02 Last updated: 2024-03-27Bibliographically approved

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