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Holding paper fibres together – the role of fibre joints in cellulose network materials
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Material and Structural Mechanics.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-3194-7988
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

With the transition towards a circular economy and sustainable solutions happening in society today, paper-based materials are excellent replacements for fossil-based plastics in semi-structural applications. Despite being one of the oldest engineered materials still in use today, paper is not fully understood from a mechanical perspective. It is a complex system consisting of a network of cellulose fibres held together by molecular interactions also called fibre joints. To fully utilise its benefits and to tailor the material to specific applications, a further understanding of the phenomena affecting the mechanical properties of cellulose fibre-based materials is necessary.

This thesis is the result of a study investigating several phenomena and effects related to the fibre joints covered at several material scales. The drying process of the fibre joint is investigated by numerical simulations of a cellulose bead – a simplified model of a fibre joint. The effects of the drying process are also evaluated for several types of materials at the network scale by hygroexpansion measurements. The network properties are further evaluated by uniaxial tensile testing of several types of materials: different pulp types at a range of network densities (600-1000 kg/m3) and with differing joint properties. The joint properties are varied by surface modifications, yielding strong joints, and by creating networks from dry fluff pulp, a novel technique called dry forming, yielding weaker joints. A selection of the physically tested networks with enhanced joint properties is reproduced in a fibre network model, and the fibre and joint parameters are tailored to mirror the experimental stress-strain response. The dry-formed material is further characterised in three loading modes: in-plane tension, out-of-plane shear, and out-of-plane compression, for an even broader range of densities (60-1000 kg/m3), following the development of mechanical properties during the forming process.

The results of this study highlight the importance of the fibre joints, both in the making and breaking of the material. A more realistic representation of a fibre joint can be made by considering the drying process. It is also shown that increasing network density and adding surface modifications will both affect the internal stress state imposed during drying. Combining these two effects has been proven to improve network mechanical properties further, although the effect of surface modifications saturates earlier for highly densified networks than for lower densities. These effects are somewhat captured in fibre network models, where the modifications are linked to a change in the network structure, conceivably driven by an increase in the number of joints in the network. Finally, the materials with weaker joint properties challenge many of the well-established truths: a consolidated network can be made without the addition of water, but the failure mechanisms are different compared to wet-formed materials at similar density levels.

Nonetheless, many possible explorations and unanswered questions regarding fibre joints remain. The results and advancements presented here can be extended to investigate and better understand the role of the joint properties and aid in developing new products and tailoring their mechanical properties.

Abstract [sv]

I dagens samhälle, där behovet av hållbara lösningar ökar och en cirkulär ekonomi är eftersträvansvärd, har pappersbaserade material en viktig roll att spela i att ersätta produkter av fossil plast i semistrukturella applikationer. Trots att papper är ett av de äldsta konstruerade materialen med ett fortsatt brett användningsområde, är materialets mekaniska beteende och attribut inte fullt klarlagda. Det är ett komplext system bestående av cellulosafibrer som hålls ihop av molekylära interaktioner, eller så kallade fiberfogar. För att kunna nyttja materialets egenskaper fullt ut och anpassa dess egenskaper till specifika applikationer är det nödvändigt att utvidga kunskaperna kring de fenomen som påverkar de mekaniska egenskaperna av cellulosabaserade fibermaterial.

Den här avhandlingen är resultatet av ett forskningsprojekt där flera fenomen och effekter relaterade till fiberfogar undersökts på olika nivåer i materialet. Torkningsprocessen av fiberfogarna har undersökts genom numeriska simuleringar av en sfär gjord av cellulosa – en förenklad modell av en fiberfog. Effekterna av torkningsprocessen undersöks även för olika typer av material på nätverksnivå genom hygroexpansionsmätningar. Nätverksegenskaperna undersöks vidare genom enaxlig dragprovning på flera olika materialtyper: olika fibermassor pressade till olika densitetsnivåer (i ett spann på 600–1000 kg/m3) och med varierande fogegenskaper. Genom att modifiera fiberytan fås starka fogar, medan nätverk med svaga fogar skapas genom torrformning, en ny formningsmetod som skapar nätverk genom att pressa torr fluffmassa. Ett urval av de provade nätverken med förstärkta fogegenskaper reproduceras i en fibernätverksmodell, där de ingående parametrarna, för fiber- och fogegenskaper, anpassas för att spegla den experimentella spännings-töjningskurvan. De torrformade materialen undersöks vidare genom att prova material i ett ännu bredare densitetsspann (60-1000 kg/m3) i tre lastriktningar: drag i planet, skjuv ut ur planet och kompression ut ur planet, genom vilket materialegenskapernas utveckling under formningsprocessen kan följas.

Resultaten understryker betydelsen av fiberfogarna, både vid nätverkets skapande och i hur det går sönder. Genom att ta hänsyn till torkningsprocessen kan en mer realistisk modell av fiberfogar skapas. De intorkade spänningarna i nätverken har också påvisats påverkas av både ökad nätverksdensitet och ytmodifieringar. Genom att kombinera dessa två uppnås nätverk med förbättrade mekaniska egenskaper, men effekten av modifieringarna mattas av tidigare i nätverk med hög densitet, jämfört med lägre densiteter. Dessa effekter fångas delvis upp av nätverksmodeller, där ytmodifieringarna kopplas till en förändring av nätverksstrukturen, vilket troligtvis är en konsekvens av ett ökande antal fogar i nätverket. De material med svaga fogar som studerats utmanar flera väletablerade sanningar: sammanhängande nätverk kan skapas utan att tillsätta vatten, men brottmekanismerna i dessa material är väsensskilda från det som ses i blötformade material på samma densitetsnivåer.

Fortfarande kvarstår många obesvarade frågor och möjliga undersökningar beträffande fiberfogar. De resultat och framsteg som presenteras här kan användas för att vidare utforska och förstå fiberfogarnas roll bättre, men också användas i vidareutveckling av nya produkter och för att skräddarsy deras mekaniska egenskaper.

Abstract [pl]

W dzisiejszym społeczeństwie, wymagającym środowiskowo długotrwałych rozwiązań i dążącym do gospodarki obiegu zamkniętego, materiały na bazie papieru są godnymi zastępcami plastików tworzonych z surowców kopalnych w zastosowaniach półstrukturalnych. Pomimo że papier jest jednym z najstarszych materiałów inżynieryjnych wciąż stosowanych współcześnie, jego właściwości mechaniczne nie są jeszcze w pełni poznane. Jest to złożony system składający się z sieci włókien celulozowych połączonych ze sobą za pomocą oddziaływań molekularnych, zwanych również połączeniami między włóknami. By w pełni wykorzystać jego zalety i dopasować materiał do konkretnych zastosowań, niezbędne jest głębsze zrozumienie zjawisk wpływających na właściwości mechaniczne materiałów na bazie włókien celulozowych.

Niniejsza praca jest wynikiem badań nad różnymi zjawiskami i efektami związanymi z połączeniami między włóknami, analizowanymi na różnych skalach materiałowych. Proces suszenia połączeń jest badany poprzez symulacje numeryczne na przykładzie kulki celulozowej, która stanowi uproszczoną wersję połączenia między włóknami. Efekty procesu suszenia są również oceniane na poziomie sieciowym poprzez pomiary higroekspansji różnych typów materiałów. Właściwości materiału sieciowego są dalej analizowane za pomocą statycznych prób rozciągania próbek o szerokim zakresie gęstości (600-1000 kg/m3) i różniących się właściwościach połączeń. Połączenia są modyfikowane poprzez obróbkę powierzchniową, co prowadzi do uzyskania silnych połączeń oraz poprzez tworzenie sieci z suchej pulpy celulozowej z użyciem nowej metody zwanej formowaniem na sucho, co z kolei skutkuje słabszymi połączeniami. Wybrane fizycznie testowane sieci włókien o ulepszonych właściwościach połączeń są dostosowane tak, aby odzwierciedlić eksperymentalną zależność naprężenie-odkształcenie. Materiał otrzymany z formowania na sucho jest dalej charakteryzowany w trzech kierunkach obciążenia: rozciąganie w płaszczyźnie, ścinanie prostopadłe do płaszczyzny i ściskanie prostopadłe do płaszczyzny, w jeszcze szerszym zakresie gęstości (60-1000 kg/m3), co pozwala na śledzenie zmiany właściwości mechanicznych podczas procesu formowania.

Wyniki tych badań podkreślają kluczowe znaczenie połączeń między włóknami zarówno podczas formowania, jak i podczas jego niszczenia. Uwzględniając proces suszenia można stworzyć bardziej realistyczne modele owych połączeń. Wykazano również, że zwiększenie gęstości sieci oraz modyfikacja powierzchniowa są czynnikami mającymi wpływ na stan naprężeń wewnętrzny powstających podczas suszenia. Połączenie tych dwóch czynników dodatkowo prowadzi do dalszej poprawy właściwości mechanicznych sieci włókien, choć efekt nasycenia wskutek modyfikacji powierzchniowych zachodzi wcześniej w przypadku wysokiej gęstości sieci w porównaniu z niższymi poziomami gęstości. Modelowanie sieci włóknistych w pewnym stopniu pozwala uchwycić te zjawiska oraz ujawnia wpływ modyfikacji powierzchwniowych na zmianę struktury sieci, najprawdopodobniej za skutkiem wzrostu ilości połączeń. Wreszcie, materiały o słabszych połączeniach stanowią wyzwanie dla wielu powszechnie przyjętych przekonań: skonsolidowaną sieć włókien można wytworzyć bez dodatku wody, ale mechanizmy niszczenia różnią się od tych występujących w materiałach wytworzonych w mokrych warunkach dla próbek o porównywalnych gęstościach.

Niemniej jednak, wiele możliwych kierunków badań nad połączeniami między włóknami pozostaje otwartych. Wyniki i osiągnięcia zaprezentowane w niniejszej pracy mogą stanowić postawę do dalszego poszerzania i rozbudowy wiedzy w tym obszarze, w celu lepszego zrozumienia roli połączeń między włóknami oraz opracowania nowych produktów i dopasowywania ich właściwości mechanicznych do konkretnych zastosowań.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2025. , p. 56
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2025:01
Keywords [en]
fibre joints, paper mechanical properties, network materials, fibre network density, moulded pulp, dry forming
Keywords [sv]
fiberfogar, pappersmekanik, nätverksmaterial, densitet i fibernätverk, massaformning, torrformning
Keywords [pl]
połączenia między włóknami, właściwości mechaniczne papieru, materiały sieciowe, gęstość sieci włókien, formowanie pulpy celulozowej, formowanie na sucho
National Category
Solid and Structural Mechanics Applied Mechanics Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology
Research subject
Solid Mechanics
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-360025ISBN: 978-91-8106-186-4 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-360025DiVA, id: diva2:1938440
Public defence
2025-03-14, F3, Lindstedtsvägen 26, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/61053677010, Stockholm, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 20250218

Available from: 2025-02-18 Created: 2025-02-18 Last updated: 2025-12-16Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. A Numerical Model for Understanding the Development of Adhesion during Drying of Cellulose Model Surfaces
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A Numerical Model for Understanding the Development of Adhesion during Drying of Cellulose Model Surfaces
2023 (English)In: Materials, E-ISSN 1996-1944, Vol. 16, no 4, p. 1327-, article id 1327Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Adhesion is crucial for the development of mechanical properties in fibre-network materials, such as paper or other cellulose fibre biocomposites. The stress transfer within the network is possible through the fibre-fibre joints, which develop their strength during drying. Model surfaces are useful for studying the adhesive strength of joints by excluding other parameters influencing global performance, such as geometry, fibre fibrillation, or surface roughness. Here, a numerical model describes the development of adhesion between a cellulose bead and a rigid surface using an axisymmetric formulation, including moisture diffusion, hygroexpansion, and cohesive surfaces. It is useful for studying the development of stresses during drying. A calibration of model parameters against previously published contact and geometry measurements shows that the model can replicate the observed behaviour. A parameter study shows the influence of cohesive and material parameters on the contact area. The developed model opens possibilities for further studies on model surfaces, with quantification of the adhesion during pull-off measurements.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
MDPI AG, 2023
Keywords
adhesion modelling, cohesive interactions, cellulose model surfaces, fibre-fibre joints
National Category
Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-324995 (URN)10.3390/ma16041327 (DOI)000941625600001 ()36836957 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85149168015 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation
Note

QC 20240628

Available from: 2023-03-27 Created: 2023-03-27 Last updated: 2025-02-18Bibliographically approved
2. Influence of density and chemical additives on paper mechanical properties
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Influence of density and chemical additives on paper mechanical properties
Show others...
2024 (English)In: Cellulose, ISSN 0969-0239, E-ISSN 1572-882X, Vol. 31, no 9, p. 5809-5822Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In this work we have investigated the effect of surface modification of fibres on the overall mechanical properties of high-density papers. Paper sheets were prepared by a combination of heat-pressing and polyelectrolyte Layer-by-Layer (LbL) modification of different softwood fibres. LbLs of Polyallylamine Hydrochloride (PAH) and Hyaluronic Acid (HA) were adsorbed onto unbleached kraft fibres and bleached Chemo-ThermoMechanical Pulp (CTMP) to improve the strength of the fibre–fibre joints in papers made from these fibres. Additionally, different sheet-making procedures were used to prepare a range of network densities with different degrees of fibre–fibre interaction in the system. The results demonstrate that interfacial adhesion within fibre–fibre joints plays a pivotal role in the network's performance, even at higher paper densities. Hygroexpansion measurements and fracture zone imaging with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) further support the claim that stronger interactions between the fibres allow for a better utilisation of the inherent fibre properties. Surface treatments and network densification significantly improved the paper sheets' mechanical properties. Specifically, LbL-treatments alone increased specific stiffness up to 60% and specific strength by over 100%. This improvement is linked to the build-up of residual stresses during drying. Due to a high interaction between the fibres during water removal the fibres become constrained, leading to increased stretching of fibre segments. Strengthened fibre joints intensify this constraint, further increasing the stretch and, consequently, the paper's strength.

Keywords
high-density networks; layer-by-layer self assembly; surface modification; hygroexpansion; joint strength; paper mechanical properties
National Category
Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-359150 (URN)10.1007/s10570-024-05917-6 (DOI)001215584700003 ()2-s2.0-85192364564 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Stora EnsoKnut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Dnr KAW 2018.0451
Note

Not duplicate with DiVA 1849242

QC 20250127

Available from: 2025-01-27 Created: 2025-01-27 Last updated: 2025-02-18Bibliographically approved
3. Fibre joint modifications and their effect on the mechanics of thin cellulose fibre network materials
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Fibre joint modifications and their effect on the mechanics of thin cellulose fibre network materials
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Fibres and the joints connecting them are the two constituents of cellulose fibre network materials, such as paper or paperboard. The properties of these two entities, together with the network geometry, determine the mechanical properties. This work studies the effect of surface modifications on sheets made from bleached chemi-thermomechanical pulp through a detailed fibre-level simulation approach. The considered modification method, the Layer-by-Layer treatment, improves the stiffness, strength, and strainability of the networks, which is often attributed to improved joint properties. The numerical calibration revealed that matching the experimental behaviour requires a significant increase in fibre modulus with surface modification.

It was examined whether joint property changes alone (joint stiffness and/or the number of joints) could explain the observed network behaviour without requiring fibre property changes. The analysis demonstrated that the required changes in joint properties would far exceed experimentally observed modifications. Hygroexpansion measurements revealed that modified networks contain larger dried-in strains, indicating stronger drying restraints when the network first forms. These restraints increased fibre stiffness. The findings suggest that while surface modification affects both joint properties and network structure, the fibre stiffening induced by drying under restraint is the dominant mechanism behind improved mechanical properties. The surface treatment improves stress transfer between fibres through the increased joint area and number of active joints, leading to a more effective distribution of drying-induced tensions throughout the network.

Keywords
fibre joints, network modelling, paper fibre properties, surface modifications, paper materials, paper mechanics, micro-mechanical model
National Category
Solid and Structural Mechanics Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-359683 (URN)
Note

QC 20250213

Available from: 2025-02-11 Created: 2025-02-11 Last updated: 2025-02-18Bibliographically approved
4. Characterising the mechanical behaviour of dry-formed cellulose fibre materials
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Characterising the mechanical behaviour of dry-formed cellulose fibre materials
2025 (English)In: Nordic Pulp & Paper Research Journal, ISSN 0283-2631, E-ISSN 2000-0669, Vol. 40, no 1Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In the dry-forming process, paper pulp is formed without adding water, making it more resource-effective than traditional papermaking. It is a relatively new technology, patented only in recent years, and very few material investigations exist in the literature; hence, little is known of the constitutive behaviour. The stress state during forming is highly complex, including multiaxial loading, extreme densification, friction, large strains, and fibre-joint formation. This paper studies dry-formed materials at different compression levels, from the sparse mat to the highly densified network. Three primary loading modes are investigated: in-plane tension, out-of-plane shear and out-of-plane compression. The results indicate that the tensile modulus and strength scale quadratically and cubically to the density, respectively, while the shear properties start developing after the density passes a threshold value. The compressive properties proved difficult to quantify, mainly because of the discrepancy between the density before and after the compressive test. The dry-formed material was compared to wet-formed paper materials in the literature. This showed that the in-plane (tensile) properties and the out-of-plane shear strength are visibly lower while the shear stiffness is similar, compared to wet-formed materials. Nonetheless, the findings set a starting point for numerical simulations of the dry-forming process.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2025
Keywords
dry-forming; fibre network density; in-plane tension; out-of-plane compression; out-of-plane shear
National Category
Paper, Pulp and Fiber Technology
Research subject
Solid Mechanics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-359149 (URN)10.1515/npprj-2024-0076 (DOI)001396047100001 ()2-s2.0-105003303348 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250214

Available from: 2025-01-27 Created: 2025-01-27 Last updated: 2025-05-06Bibliographically approved

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