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Thermal Analysis of Mechanical Brakes in Rail Vehicles: Modelling and Simulation
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Vehicle engineering and technical acoustics. (Rail vehicle group)ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1703-6275
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Sustainable development
SDG 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure, SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production
Abstract [en]

Rail vehicles are known for being energy-efficient in both passenger and freight transport. A critical subsystem of rail vehicles is the braking system, which ensures operational safety. Among the various braking systems, mechanical brakes are considered more reliable due to their fail-safe design, allowing effective braking even in the event of system failures - something that electric brakes today cannot guarantee.

Mechanical brakes generate braking force through friction, resulting in frictional heat and wear. The increase in temperature and wear of the friction pads, discs, or wheels induces uneven contacts. These uneven contacts introduce uncertainty in friction pairs and may reduce the coefficient of friction. Thus, friction heat affects braking performance and makes thermal analysis essential for mechanical brakes. This analysis primarily focuses on how heat is generated and dissipated. Conducting a precise thermal analysis of railway mechanical brakes is a challenging task.

While experiments are an effective means to investigate thermal characteristics, they are expensive and have limitations in data collection. In contrast, modelling and simulation are cost-effective and provide unique insights into thermal properties. This research focuses on modelling and simulating railway mechanical brakes with respect to their thermal-related properties. Three different modelling approaches are employed: analytical, numerical, and data-driven models. These methods aim to explore why composite brake blocks in winter result in longer braking distances, how to accurately simulate the temperature of brake discs, and what the computational cost is associated with each modelling method.

First, an analytical model examines how ice melts and is removed, revealing that the wettability of the composite material is the primary reason for the long braking distance of freight trains. The simulation results align with accident reports, which primarily occur at low ambient temperatures, around -15 °C, low speeds, approximately 20 km/h, and empty wagons. In the next step, a numerical model utilizes the finite element method (FEM) to solve heat transfer and elastic equations, incorporating thermal expansion, wear and contact. The simulation results are then compared with experimental data, demonstrating that this FEM model is robust, fast and accurate. Finally, a data-driven model is developed to reduce the computational cost of FEM. The results indicated that the data-driven model surpasses FEM in accuracy, computational time and complexity, with a root mean square error 12.1 °C vs. 23.4 °C, a computation time of 3 minutes vs. 104 minutes, and fewer input parameters, i.e. less than 20 vs. over 115.

In summary, this research employs modelling and simulation methods to conduct thermal analysis of the railway mechanical brake system, providing unique insights into thermal-related mechanical problems.

Abstract [sv]

Järnvägsfordon är kända för att vara energieffektiva både inom person- och godstransport. Ett kritiskt delsystem i dessa fordon är bromssystemet, som säkerställer driftsäkerheten. Bland de olika typerna av bromssystem anses de mekaniska bromsarna vara mer tillförlitliga tack vare sin failsafe-design, vilket möjliggör effektiv bromsning även vid systemfel – något som elektriska bromsar i dagsläget inte kan garantera.

Mekaniska bromsar genererar bromskraft genom friktion, vilket leder till friktionsvärme och slitage. Den ökade temperaturen och slitaget på bromsbelägg, skivor eller hjul orsakar ojämna kontaktytor. Dessa ojämnheter skapar osäkerhet i friktionsparen och kan minska friktionskoefficienten. Friktionsvärmen påverkar alltså bromsprestandan och gör termisk analys nödvändig för mekaniska bromsar. Denna analys fokuserar främst på hur värme alstras och avleds. Att genomföra en exakt termisk analys av järnvägens mekaniska bromsar är en utmanande uppgift.

Även om experiment är ett effektivt sätt att undersöka termiska egenskaper, är de kostsamma och begränsade i datainsamling. Modellering och simulering utgör däremot kostnadseffektiva alternativ som ger unika insikter i de termiska egenskaperna. Denna forskning fokuserar på modellering och simulering av järnvägens mekaniska bromsar med avseende på deras termiska egenskaper. Tre olika modelleringsmetoder används: analytiska, numeriska och data-drivna modeller. Dessa metoder syftar till att undersöka varför kompositbromsklossar under vinterförhållanden leder till längre bromssträckor, hur bromsskivans temperatur kan simuleras med hög noggrannhet, samt vilken beräkningskostnad som är förknippad med respektive modell.

Först undersöker en analytisk modell hur is smälter och avlägsnas, och visar att kompositmaterialets vätbarhet är den främsta orsaken till de långa bromssträckorna hos godståg. Simuleringsresultaten överensstämmer med olycksrapporter, som främst inträffar vid låga omgivningstemperaturer, omkring –15 °C, låga hastigheter, cirka 20 km/h, och tomma vagnar. Därefter används en numerisk modell som tillämpar finita elementmetoden (FEM) för att lösa värmeöverförings- och elasticitetsekvationer, inklusive termisk expansion, slitage och kontakt. Simuleringsresultaten jämförs sedan med experimentella data och visar att denna FEM-modell är robust, snabb och noggrann. Slutligen utvecklas en data-driven modell för att minska beräkningskostnaden för FEM. Resultaten visar att den data-drivna modellen överträffar FEM vad gäller noggrannhet, beräkningstid och komplexitet, med ett medelkvadratfel på 12,1 °C jämfört med 23,4 °C, en beräkningstid på 3 minuter jämfört med 104 minuter, samt färre indata – mindre än 20 jämfört med över 115.

Sammanfattningsvis använder denna forskning modellerings- och simuleringsmetoder för att genomföra termisk analys av järnvägens mekaniska bromssystem och erbjuder unika insikter i termiskt relaterade mekaniska problem.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2025. , p. 144
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2025:55
Keywords [en]
heat transfer, finite element method, contact, wear, tread and disc brakes, rail vehicles
Keywords [sv]
Värmeöverföring, finita elementmetoden, kontakt, slitage, bromsbelägg och skivbromsar, spårfordon
National Category
Mechanical Engineering
Research subject
Vehicle and Maritime Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-372323ISBN: 978-91-8106-419-3 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-372323DiVA, id: diva2:2012957
Public defence
2025-12-05, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/63495040006, F3, Lindstedtsvägen 26, Stockholm, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 251111

Available from: 2025-11-11 Created: 2025-11-11 Last updated: 2025-11-24Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Study on the braking distance of composite brake blocks covered with ice for freight trains in winter
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Study on the braking distance of composite brake blocks covered with ice for freight trains in winter
2023 (English)In: Proceedings of the Institution of mechanical engineers. Part F, journal of rail and rapid transit, ISSN 0954-4097, E-ISSN 2041-3017, Vol. 237, no 8, p. 1050-1059Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In winter, some freight trains with composite brake blocks experience unexpected long braking distances, which seriously jeopardizes running safety. The reasons for the long braking distances are still not completely understood, and therefore it is difficult to suggest preventive measures. Up to now, it has not really been studied how a layer of ice that is often found between the brake block and the wheel influences the braking process. To investigate whether ice influences the braking distance, a numerical model is built. Ice thickness, ambient temperature, initial speed, and axle load/brake pressure are parameters that can be varied in the model. Results are checked against available on-track tests. The simulation results show that ice significantly influences the braking distance. The impact of ice on the braking distance increases when the ambient temperature, initial speed, and brake pressure are low, which is consistent with available field test reports. The results also show that a conditioning brake, a high brake pressure and a small clearance between the wheel and brake block can efficiently reduce the impact of ice on the braking distance of freight trains with composite brake blocks in winter.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
SAGE Publications, 2023
Keywords
braking distance, composite brake block, Freight train, ice, winter
National Category
Vehicle and Aerospace Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-338418 (URN)10.1177/09544097231151474 (DOI)000913437000001 ()2-s2.0-85146537403 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20231023

Available from: 2023-10-23 Created: 2023-10-23 Last updated: 2025-11-11Bibliographically approved
2. Influence of thermal expansion and wear on the temperatures and stresses in railway disc brakes
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Influence of thermal expansion and wear on the temperatures and stresses in railway disc brakes
2024 (English)In: International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, ISSN 0735-1933, E-ISSN 1879-0178, Vol. 158, article id 107858Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Thermo-mechanical coupled systems are typically complex, however, the demand for analyses of this kind of multi-physics system is increasing, for example, accurately predicting the temperature and thermal stress of the railway disc brakes. However, many models ignore the phenomenon of thermal expansion and wear on brake pads. Therefore, their influence on the result is unclear. This research aims to investigate the effect of these two phenomena on the temperatures and stresses. These influences represent different heat flux input methods. Based on the finite element method (FEM), a three-dimensional (3D) transient thermo-mechanical model is built up. Three cases with or without thermal expansion and wear are conducted. The model is validated against measurement data. Simulation results show that thermal expansion and wear on the brake pads cause a 10% difference in the average temperatures of the brake discs, while a 257% difference in the maximum temperatures. As for the equivalent stresses (Von Mises stress), the difference can reach 3500%. Overall, this research builds a thermo-mechanical model and quantifies the effects of thermal expansion and wear on the temperatures and stresses of railway brake discs. The model can be transferred to other thermo-mechanical coupled multi-physics systems.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV, 2024
Keywords
Heat flux, Thermal expansion, Thermo-mechanical analysis, Wear
National Category
Energy Engineering Other Mechanical Engineering Applied Mechanics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-351697 (URN)10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2024.107858 (DOI)001285630100001 ()2-s2.0-85199893849 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20240815

Available from: 2024-08-13 Created: 2024-08-13 Last updated: 2025-11-11Bibliographically approved
3. A thermomechanical model with frictional contact and wear based on the finite element method
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A thermomechanical model with frictional contact and wear based on the finite element method
2025 (English)In: Computational Mechanics, ISSN 0178-7675, E-ISSN 1432-0924Article in journal (Refereed) Epub ahead of print
Abstract [en]

A thermomechanical model has been developed and implemented to couple temperature, thermal expansion, contact, and wear using the finite element method. This three-dimensional, transient, and nonlinear model is unconditionally stable because of the use of an implicit solver. The weak form of the nonlinear heat transfer and elasticity equations has been derived, incorporating penalty contact, conduction, convection, radiation, and deformation. Several boundary conditions, including Dirichlet, Neumann, and Robin conditions, have been applied. We focus on mechanical train brakes due to their strong thermomechanical coupling effect. The simulation results have been validated against full-scale experimental data. Additionally, mesh sensitivity and time step sensitivity analyses are conducted to further assess the model’s accuracy. Friction heat is calculated at each time step through contact conditions, enabling the identification of hot spots and thermal cracks. The results demonstrate that this thermomechanical model is both efficient and robust. This model has been open-sourced, providing a powerful tool for advanced research in thermomechanical multiphysics analysis.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2025
National Category
Applied Mechanics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-372312 (URN)10.1007/s00466-025-02715-0 (DOI)001606184700001 ()2-s2.0-105020889222 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20251119

Available from: 2025-11-04 Created: 2025-11-04 Last updated: 2025-11-19Bibliographically approved
4. Physics Based and Data Driven Methods for Predicting Railway Disc Brake Temperature: A Comparative Case Study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Physics Based and Data Driven Methods for Predicting Railway Disc Brake Temperature: A Comparative Case Study
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

The finite element method(FEM) is a practical approach for solving mechanical engineering problems, such as heat transfer. However, it is limited by heavy computation and complex physical models. Machine learning may be another solution. This paper presents a comparative study of the FEM and Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) for predicting the temperature of railway disc brakes. Prediction accuracy, computational time, and model complexity are evaluated. The results show that DNNs outperform FEM in all three aspects. With a lower root mean square error (12.1 °C vs. 23.4 °C), a significantly reduced computation time (3 minutes vs. 104 minutes), and fewer input parameters (less than 20 vs. over 115). While DNNs demonstrate high efficiency and suitability for small-scale mechanical engineering applications, they lack physical interpretability and are highly dependent on the quality and quantity of training data.

Keywords
Heat transfer, Finite element method, Deep neural networks, Railway brake, Thermal analysis
National Category
Solid and Structural Mechanics
Research subject
Engineering Mechanics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-372322 (URN)
Note

QC 20251107

Available from: 2025-11-04 Created: 2025-11-04 Last updated: 2025-11-11Bibliographically approved

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