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Aggregate Fracture in Unbound Road Materials
KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment (ABE), Civil and Architectural Engineering, Road and Railway Engineering. KTH Royal Institute Of Technology.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-2449-4573
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Sustainable development
SDG 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure
Abstract [en]

Mineral aggregate fracture in unbound granular materials (UGMs) beneath asphalt pavement layers affect pavement performance and may accelerate distresses. Improving the understanding, characterization, and quantitative prediction of aggregate fracture in UGMs is therefore essential, particularly to support the use of marginal-quality aggregates in road construction and thereby reduce the demand for high-quality aggregates and lower the environmental impact of road infrastructure.

This thesis introduces a new numerical framework, combined with an experimental study, to predict aggregate fracture in UGMs and quantify its influence on UGM macro-mechanical behavior. The framework is based on the discrete element method (DEM) and enables evaluation of aggregate fracture for varying gradations, loading conditions, and aggregate types. To ensure general applicability, granular mechanics–based contact laws and statistical fracture models are developed and incorporated into DEM.

The model parameters are identified and the framework validated through laterally confined monotonic uniaxial compression tests on UGMs. The tested materials included different aggregate types and gradations and were subjected to different maximum compressive loads. For UGMs composed of crushed granite, the DEM model captures the effects of gradation and load magnitude on both macro-mechanical response and aggregate fracture. To extend the framework to a wider range of aggregates, particularly marginal-quality aggregates, a new particle fracture model is developed that accounts for aggregate shape variability and statistical volume effects on fracture force distributions. The model is evaluated using single-particle crushing tests on four aggregate types and compared with two widely used fracture models, showing improved agreement with measured aggregate strength. When implemented in the DEM framework, the new model improves fracture predictions for UGMs containing marginal-quality aggregates.

The feasibility of using DEM to assess how aggregate fracture affects elastic stiffness and permanent deformation resistance of UGM is evaluated. Emphasis is put on UGMs containing marginal aggregates and on the potential for optimizing pavement structural design to enable their use without excessive performance loss. Blended UGMs containing crushed granite and crushed brick are investigated using confined compression tests and X-ray CT, and the observations are incorporated into the DEM model to predict both macro-mechanical behavior and aggregate fracture.

A systematic analysis of aggregate fracture in UGMs subjected to confined monotonic compression tests is conducted to identify the governing factors of fracture. The results show that aggregate fracture is controlled by the coupled effects of aggregate strength, gradation, and applied load, with the strength and applied load identified as the dominant factors. The results further demonstrate that aggregate fracture in UGMs cannot be fully predicted using standard aggregate strength tests alone and should therefore be evaluated under field-representative gradations and loading conditions. To support this assessment, an approach combining the developed DEM models with experimental measurements is introduced, and a fracture evolution parameter is proposed to quantify the progression of aggregate fracture during compression. The parameter shows strong agreement with experimentally observed aggregate fracture and provides an effective means for characterizing fracture development in UGMs under loading.

In summary, the results demonstrate that the developed DEM framework can quantify how a wide range of aggregate types—including marginal-quality aggregates—along with gradation and loading, affect UGM performance and aggregate fracture, and can support performance-based material selection and pavement design to mitigate aggregate crushing.

Abstract [sv]

Brott i aggregat i obundna granulära material (OGM) under asfaltbeläggningslager påverkar vägbeläggningens prestanda och kan påskynda skador. Förbättrad förståelse, karakterisering, och kvantitativ prediktering av aggregatbrott i GGM är därför avgörande, särskilt för att möjliggöra användning av material med lägre kvalitet i vägbyggnad. Detta kan minska behovet av högkvalitativa och nybrutna ballastmaterial och därmed sänka väginfrastrukturens miljöpåverkan.

Denna avhandling introducerar ett nytt numeriskt ramverk, kombinerat med en experimentell studie, för att förutsäga aggregatbrott i OGM och kvantifiera dess inverkan på materialets makromekaniska beteende. Ramverket bygger på diskreta elementmetoden (DEM) och möjliggör utvärdering av aggregatbrott för varierande graderingar, belastningsförhållanden, och aggregattyper. För att säkerställa att ramverket är generellt tillämpbart har kontaktlagar baserade på kontaktmekanik samt statistiska brottmodeller utvecklats och integreras i DEM.

Modellparametrar identifieras och modellerna valideras genom inneslutna uniaxiella kompressionstester på OGM bestående av olika aggregattyper och graderingar vilka utsätts olika maximala tryckbelastningar. För OGM bestående av krossad granit fångar DEM‑modellen effekterna av kornkurva och belastningsnivå på både makromekaniskt beteende och aggregatbrott. För att utvidga ramverket till ett bredare spektrum av aggregat, särskilt material av lägre kvalitet, utvecklas en ny partikelbrottsmodell som tar hänsyn till variationer i aggregatens form och statistiska volymeffekter på brottkraftsfördelningar. Modellen utvärderas med krossningstester på enskilda partiklar av fyra olika aggregattyper och jämförs med två vanligt använda brottsmodeller, vilket visar förbättrad överensstämmelse med uppmätta brottkrafter. När modellen implementeras i DEM‑ramverket förbättras prediktionen av brott i OGM som innehåller aggregat av lägre kvalitet.

Möjligheten att använda DEM för att bedöma hur aggregatbrott påverkar elastisk styvhet och motstånd mot permanent deformation utvärderas, med fokus på OGM som innehåller aggregat av lägre kvalitet och potentialen att optimera vägens konstruktionsutformning för att möjliggöra deras användning utan betydande prestandaförlust. Blandade OGM bestående av krossad granit och krossat tegel undersöks vidare genom inneslutna kompressionstester och röntgen‑CT, och observationerna integreras i DEM‑modellen för att förutsäga både makromekaniskt beteende och aggregatbrott.

En systematisk analys av aggregatbrott i OGM utsatta för inneslutna monotona kompressionstester genomförs för att identifiera de styrande faktorerna bakom brott. Resultaten visar att aggregatbrott styrs av de samverkande effekterna av aggregatstyrka, kornkurva och applicerad last, där Los Angeles‑värdet (LA) och maximal last identifieras som de dominerande faktorerna. Resultaten visar vidare att aggregatbrott i OGM inte kan predikteras enbart med standardiserade index och därför bör utvärderas under fältrepresentativa kornkurvor och belastningsförhållanden. För att stödja denna bedömning introduceras en metod som kombinerar de utvecklade DEM-modellerna med experimentella mätningar, och en parameter för skadesutveckling föreslås för att kvantifiera progressionen av aggregatbrott under kompression. Parametern visar stark överensstämmelse med experimentellt observerat aggregatbrott och erbjuder ett effektivt sätt att karakterisera brottsutveckling i UGM under belastning.

Sammanfattningsvis visar resultaten att det utvecklade DEM‑ramverket kan kvantifiera hur aggregattyp, kornkurva och belastning påverkar OGM’s prestanda och aggregatbrott, och kan stödja prestandabaserat materialval och vägutformning för att minska krossning av aggregat i obundet granulärt material.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. , p. 79
Series
TRITA-ABE-DLT ; 2612
Keywords [en]
Discrete Element Method (DEM), unbound granular material (UGM), aggregates; marginal aggregates, aggregate fracture, X-ray computed tomography
Keywords [sv]
Diskret elementmetod (DEM), obundet granulärt material (OGM), aggregat, aggregat av lägre kvalitet, aggregatbrott, röntgentomografi (X-ray CT).
National Category
Infrastructure Engineering Solid and Structural Mechanics
Research subject
Civil and Architectural Engineering, Building Materials
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-380266ISBN: 978-91-8106-591-6 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-380266DiVA, id: diva2:2056044
Public defence
2026-05-22, Q2, Malvinas väg 10, KTH Camppus, public video conference link https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/63428698061, Stockholm, 13:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish Transport Administration
Note

QC 20260428

Available from: 2026-04-28 Created: 2026-04-27 Last updated: 2026-05-04Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Experimental and numerical analyses of crushing resistance of unbound road materials
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Experimental and numerical analyses of crushing resistance of unbound road materials
2024 (English)In: The international journal of pavement engineering, ISSN 1029-8436, E-ISSN 1477-268X, Vol. 25, no 1, article id 2330630Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Aggregate breakage in unbound pavement layers can lead to pavement distresses that affect their functionality and service life. Thus understanding the mechanics and clarifying the factors affecting materials breakage resistance are important for ensuring adequate performance of these layers. In this study, aggregate breakage in unbound granular materials (UGM) is investigated experimentally and numerically. Experimentally, aggregate breakage under uniaxial compression is examined for two UGMs prepared with the same aggregate type but different gradations. To capture the experimentally observed influence of gradation and load magnitude on aggregate breakage, a Discrete Element Method (DEM) model was developed, based on granular mechanics particle contact and failure laws. A simple procedure to identify the contact and failure law parameters from experiments is proposed. With those parameters, the model’s capability of capturing the effect of gradation and loading on the aggregate breakage in UGM is evaluated. Based on comparison with experimental findings, it is shown that the model can capture macro-scale properties of UGM, such as its deformation response under uniaxial compression, as well as the amount of aggregate breakage in the material.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Informa UK Limited, 2024
Keywords
aggregate breakage, contact mechanics, discrete element method (DEM), gradation, Unbound granular materials (UGM)
National Category
Infrastructure Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-344930 (URN)10.1080/10298436.2024.2330630 (DOI)001191339800001 ()2-s2.0-85188571142 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20240404

Available from: 2024-04-03 Created: 2024-04-03 Last updated: 2026-04-27Bibliographically approved
2. Discrete element analysis on aggregate breakage of unbound granular road materials
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Discrete element analysis on aggregate breakage of unbound granular road materials
2025 (English)In: Canadian journal of civil engineering (Print), ISSN 0315-1468, E-ISSN 1208-6029, Vol. 52, no 7, p. 1379-1390Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Adequate aggregate resistance to crushing and abrasion is crucial for good performance of unbound road layers, in particular when incorporating marginal aggregates in road construction. In this study, aggregate crushing in unbound granular materials (UGMs) is investigated experimentally with uniaxial compression tests, and numerically with discrete element method (DEM). A DEM model of UGMs subjected to uniaxial monotonic compression is implemented in a commercial DEM software, incorporating granular mechanics-based particle-contact and breakage laws. Based on comparison with the experimental findings, it is shown that the implemented model captures the UGMs behavior well including aggregate breakage characteristics. The model is used furthermore to evaluate aggregate crushing in UGMs subjected to cyclic loading representative for unbound road layers of low-volume roads. The feasibility of using the developed DEM approach for evaluating the implications of using marginal UGMs in unbound road layers and for optimizing structural design of those layers is discussed.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Canadian Science Publishing, 2025
Keywords
unbound granular material, marginal road material, discrete element method modelling, aggregate breakage, cyclic loading
National Category
Infrastructure Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-367877 (URN)10.1139/cjce-2024-0091 (DOI)001506897900001 ()2-s2.0-105018737947 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250804

Available from: 2025-08-04 Created: 2025-08-04 Last updated: 2026-04-27Bibliographically approved
3. A new statistical fracture model for particles in unbound road materials
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A new statistical fracture model for particles in unbound road materials
2025 (English)In: Materials and Structures, ISSN 1359-5997, E-ISSN 1871-6873, Vol. 58, no 6, article id 228Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Fracture of rock particles is important inmany applications like mining, mineral comminution,unbound granular materials (UGMs) for railwayand road structures. The latter application is themain interest presently, as fracture of rock particles inUGMs affects the UGMs performance and may compromisestructural integrity of a pavement, potentiallyleading to premature road failures. Therefore, it isimportant to assess their resistance to aggregate fractureaccurately. In this study, a new statistical fracturemodel for particle fracture, based on the results ofsingle particle crushing tests, is introduced to investigateaggregate fracture. The proposed model istested for UGMs composed of three different aggregatetypes: brick, granite and a volcanic material andits results are compared with other widely used fractureforce models. The performance of the models isalso investigated by simulating uniaxial monotoniccompression tests on UGMs with different aggregatesize distributions using the Discrete Element Method(DEM) and comparing the results with experiments.Fracture at two different load levels for three differentparticle size distributions are investigated for eachmaterial. One particle size distribution at one loadlevel is used to identify the contact law parametersfor each material, and single particle breakage testare used to identify the fracture force model parameters.The DEM models with a new fracture forcemodel agrees well with the macro-mechanical behaviourobserved in experiments and exhibits the highestdegree of correlation to fracture results obtained fromexperiments.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2025
Keywords
Unbound granular materials (UGM), Particle fracture, Discrete element method (DEM), Single particle crushing
National Category
Infrastructure Engineering
Research subject
Civil and Architectural Engineering; Civil and Architectural Engineering, Building Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-369101 (URN)10.1617/s11527-025-02760-4 (DOI)001556236400001 ()2-s2.0-105013963870 (Scopus ID)
Funder
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Note

QC 20250905

Available from: 2025-08-27 Created: 2025-08-27 Last updated: 2026-04-27Bibliographically approved
4. Modelling and Testing of Marginal Aggregate Fracture in Unbound Granular Materials
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Modelling and Testing of Marginal Aggregate Fracture in Unbound Granular Materials
Show others...
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Infrastructure Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-380254 (URN)
Note

QC 20260427

Available from: 2026-04-27 Created: 2026-04-27 Last updated: 2026-04-27Bibliographically approved
5. Fracture Testing of Aggregates in Unbound Granular Road Materials
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Fracture Testing of Aggregates in Unbound Granular Road Materials
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Infrastructure Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-380255 (URN)
Note

QC 20260427

Available from: 2026-04-27 Created: 2026-04-27 Last updated: 2026-04-27Bibliographically approved

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