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Driverless Multipurpose Vehicles for Sustainable Urban Road Transportation: Integrated Vehicle Fleet Optimization and Routing
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Vehicle engineering and technical acoustics. TRATON AB.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-4666-625X
2026 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Sustainable development
SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities
Abstract [en]

A driverless multipurpose vehicle (DMV) is an autonomous road vehicle designed to execute multiple transportation functions, such as freight distribution and passenger transportation, within daily operations. They may reduce fleet size, energy consumption, and operating costs in urban transportation, yet their system-level implications remain poorly understood. Existing fleet optimization models rarely integrate realistic energy estimation based on key vehicle-level and transportation system-level factors on real urban road networks, limiting the evidence base for evaluating DMV deployment.

This thesis assesses the energy and operational implications of DMV deployment in urban road transportation from a system-level, operational perspective. It addresses three research questions. First, how the energy consumption of DMV fleets can be estimated and compared against human-driven battery-electric vehicle (BEV) and combustion vehicle (CV) fleets under realistic urban operating conditions. Second, how key vehicle-level and transportation system-level factors can be integrated into fleet-level optimization on realistic urban road networks. Third, what energy and operational implications emerge from DMVs with an interior-reconfigurable architecture (IRA) type compared with human-driven BEV and CV fleets across multiple cities and operational scenarios. The thesis also proposes a practice-based taxonomy of eight architectural strategies of DMVs grounded in design for changeability theory.

The methodological contribution is a two-stage optimization framework coupling fleet sizing, mix, and routing with a deterministic microscopic energy consumption model on real urban road networks. The first stage solves energy-minimal shortest path problems incorporating edge-specific driving profiles and key vehicle-level and transportation-system-level factors, producing a reduced graph. The second stage solves the novel Fleet Size and Mix Electric Vehicle Routing Problem with Simultaneous Pickup and Delivery on this reduced graph. The energy consumption model is evaluated against measured energy data from 18 trips of a battery-electric truck operating on a fixed urban route in Östersund, Sweden: it overestimates absolute energy use but reproduces subroute energy rankings, supporting its use for comparative fleet assessment.

The framework is applied across Stockholm, Paris, and Lisbon with 50 transportation operations per city and per fleet type, and four objectives. CV fleets consistently have the highest energy consumption, while BEV and DMV fleets show comparable energy use across all cities and objectives. Under cost minimization, DMV fleets achieve the lowest total cost (median approximately €430 per day) compared to CV (€450) and BEV (€730) fleets, driven primarily by the elimination of driver labor. Separate analyses show that business-as-usual operations with dedicated freight and waste fleets consume approximately 50–80% more energy than corresponding simultaneous operations, indicating substantial multipurpose capability benefits. However, because all fleet types perform the same combined service in the main comparative study in the thesis, the results primarily reflect the effect of automation rather than the full multipurpose capability of DMV fleets.

The modeling framework supports energy-informed decisions from strategic fleet procurement and technology adoption, through tactical fleet sizing and deployment, to operational routing. It provides a foundation for future research on larger problem instances requiring approximate solution methods, co-modal freight and passenger operations, additional DMV architectural strategies, and formulations that account for resilience and accessibility.

Abstract [sv]

Ett självkörande multifunktionsfordon (eng. Driverless Multipurpose Vehicle, DMV) är ett autonomt vägfordon utformat för att utföra flera transportfunktioner, såsom gods- och persontransporter, under daglig drift. Dessa fordon kan potentiellt minska fordonsflottans storlek, energiförbrukning och driftskostnader i stadstransporter, men förståelsen av deras systemövergripande konsekvenser är fortfarande begränsad. Befintliga modeller för optimering av fordonsflottor integrerar sällan realistisk energiuppskattning baserad på centrala fordonsspecifika och transportsystemrelaterade faktorer på verkliga urbana vägnät, vilket begränsar evidensbasen för att utvärdera införandet av DMV-flottor.

Denna avhandling bedömer energi- och driftsmässiga konsekvenser av DMV-införande i stadstransporter ur ett systemnivå- och operativt perspektiv. Avhandlingen behandlar tre forskningsfrågor. För det första, hur energiförbrukningen hos DMV-flottor kan uppskattas och jämföras med manuellt styrda batterielektriska fordonsflottor (eng. Battery-Electric Vehicle, BEV) och förbränningsmotorfordonsflottor (eng. Combustion Vehicle, CV) under realistiska urbana driftsförhållanden. För det andra, hur centrala fordonsspecifika och transportsystemrelaterade faktorer kan integreras i optimeringen av fordonsflottor på realistiska urbana vägnät. För det tredje, vilka energi- och driftsmässiga konsekvenser som uppstår vid jämförelse av DMV-flottor med interiört rekonfigurerbar arkitektur (eng. Interior-Reconfigurable Architecture, IRA) med manuellt styrda BEV- och CV-flottor i flera städer och operativa scenarier. Avhandlingen presenterar även en praxisbaserad taxonomi av åtta arkitekturstrategier av DMV koncept grundade i förändringsteori inom design.

Det metodologiska bidraget är ett tvåstegsoptimeringsramverk som kopplar samman fordonsflottans storlek, -komposition och ruttplanering med en deterministisk mikroskopisk energiförbrukningsmodell på verkliga urbana vägnät. Det första steget löser energiminimerande kortaste-väg-problem som inkluderar nätverkslänkspecifika körprofiler, fordonstypsspecifika och transportsystemrelaterade faktorer, och resulterar i en reducerad graf. Det andra steget löser fordonsruttsproblemet Fleet Size and Mix Electric Vehicle Routing Problem with Simultaneous Pickup and Delivery på den reducerade grafen från första steget. Energiförbrukningsmodellen utvärderades mot uppmätt energidata från 18 resor med en batterielektrisk lastbil på en specifik urban rutt i Östersund, Sverige: modellen överskattar den absoluta energiförbrukningen men reproducerar energirankningen mellan delsträckor, vilket stödjer dess användning för jämförande utvärdering av fordonsflottor.

Tvåstegsoptimeringsramverket tillämpas på Stockholm, Paris och Lissabon med 50 transportoperationer per stad och per fordonstyp, med fyra olika målfunktioner. CV-flottor har konsekvent den högsta energiförbrukningen, medan BEV och DMV-flottor uppvisar jämförbar energianvändning i alla städer och för alla målfunktioner. Vid kostnadsminimering uppnår DMV-flottor den lägsta totalkostnaden (median cirka 430 euro per dag) jämfört med CV-flottor (450 euro) och BEV-flottor (730 euro), detta var främst drivet av eliminering av förarkostnader. Separata analyser visar att konventionella transporter med separata gods- och avfallstransporter förbrukar cirka 50–80% mer energi än motsvarande transporter med samlastning, vilket indikerar betydande fördelar med multifunktionskapacitet. Eftersom samtliga fordonstyper utför samma kombinerade tjänst i den huvudsakliga jämförande studien i avhandlingen speglar resultaten dock främst effekten av automation snarare än DMV fulla multifunktionskapacitet.

Modelleringsramverket stödjer energiinformerade beslut på strategisk nivå (anskaffning av fordonsflottor och teknikval), taktisk nivå (storlek av fordonsflottan och dess sammansättning) och operativ nivå (ruttplanering). Det utgör en grund för framtida forskning om större problemstorlekar som kräver approximativa lösningsmetoder, kombinerad gods- och persontransporter, alternativa arkitekturstrategier för DMV-flottor, samt formuleringar som tar hänsyn till resiliens och tillgänglighet.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026.
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2026:14
Keywords [en]
Optimization, Energy consumption, Electric vehicles, Autonomous vehicles, Vehicle routing, Heterogeneous fleet, Sustainable urban transportation, Emerging technologies
Keywords [sv]
Optimering, Energiförbrukning, Elfordon, Självkörande fordon, Ruttplanering, Heterogen fordonsflotta, Hållbara stadstransporter, Framväxande teknologier
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics Vehicle and Aerospace Engineering
Research subject
Vehicle and Maritime Engineering; Applied and Computational Mathematics, Optimization and Systems Theory; Transport Science
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-382528ISBN: 978-91-8106-635-7 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-382528DiVA, id: diva2:2063116
Presentation
2026-06-15, B1, Brinellvägen 23, Stockholm, 13:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Vinnova, 2020-00565Vinnova, 2022-00636
Note

QC 260529

Available from: 2026-05-29 Created: 2026-05-28 Last updated: 2026-06-01Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. A review on real vehicle usage modelling of driverless multipurpose vehicles in vehicle routing problems
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2023 (English)In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Engineering Design, ICED 2023, Cambridge University Press (CUP) , 2023, p. 385-394Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Real vehicle usage rarely matches the predictions made during early phases of vehicle development and sales processes at commercial road vehicle manufacturers. The automotive industry needs multidisciplinary vehicle design methods to predict real-world vehicle operations by considering the vehicle level and the transport system level simultaneously, in a more holistic approach. The aim of this study was to analyse how realistic vehicle usage of driverless multipurpose vehicles can be modelled in Vehicle Routing Problems (VRPs) by conducting a systematic literature review. We found that real vehicle usage modelling of driverless multipurpose vehicles in VRPs mainly depended on the following elements: VRP variant, energy consumption model, energy consumption rate class, number of vehicle-specific design variables and transport system-level factors. Furthermore, we identified in the literature five classes of energy consumption rate edge behaviour in VRPs. These findings can support decision-making in the modelling process to select the most suitable combination of elements, and their level of detail for the overall modelling aim and purpose.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Cambridge University Press (CUP), 2023
Keywords
Design engineering, Early design phases, Energy consumption, Product modelling / models, Vehicle routing problem
National Category
Vehicle and Aerospace Engineering Transport Systems and Logistics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-334431 (URN)10.1017/pds.2023.39 (DOI)2-s2.0-85165483905 (Scopus ID)
Conference
24th International Conference on Engineering Design, ICED 2023, Bordeaux, France, Jul 24 2023 - Jul 28 2023
Note

QC 20230821

Available from: 2023-08-21 Created: 2023-08-21 Last updated: 2026-05-28Bibliographically approved
2. Energy Consumption Evaluation of Emerging and Current Vehicle Fleets in Urban Logistics
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2025 (English)In: Transport Transitions: Advancing Sustainable and Inclusive Mobility: Proceedings of the 10th TRA Conference, 2024, Dublin, Ireland - Volume 4: Clean Energy Transition / [ed] Ciaran McNally, Páraic Carroll, Beatriz Martinez-Pastor, Bidisha Ghosh, Marina Efthymiou, Nikolaos Valantasis-Kanellos, Cham: Springer, 2025, p. 375-381Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Driverless multipurpose vehicles (DMVs) are an emerging vehicle concept for urban heavy-duty transport. However, little is known about their effect on urban road transport systems. Thus, the aim of this study is to analyse the total fleet energy consumption of DMVs for specific transport operations in urban logistics compared to heavy- duty battery and combustion vehicles. A novel electric vehicle routing problem was used to simulate in total 96 case-studies of operations with varying network and vehicle fleet properties. We found that the combustion vehicle fleets consumed significantly more energy for the same operation compared to the electric vehicle fleets. Although the DMV fleet and battery electric vehicle fleet showcased similar energy consumption for most case-studies, there were several operations where the DMV fleet consumed less energy and required a smaller fleet size. This study highlights the potential benefits of DMV fleets in urban logistics operations in terms of reducing total fleet energy consumption and fleet size.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Cham: Springer, 2025
Series
Lecture Notes in Mobility, ISSN 2196-5544, E-ISSN 2196-5552
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics Vehicle and Aerospace Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-344063 (URN)10.1007/978-3-031-95284-5_52 (DOI)001576316800052 ()2-s2.0-105011948810 (Scopus ID)
Conference
10th Transportation Research Arena, Dublin, Ireland, 15-18 April 2024
Funder
Vinnova, 2022-00636
Note

Part of ISBN 978-3-031-95284-5, 978-3-031-95283-8

QC 20240301

Available from: 2024-02-29 Created: 2024-02-29 Last updated: 2026-05-29Bibliographically approved
3. Two-Stage Fleet Size and Mix Electric Vehicle Routing Problem with Energy Estimation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Two-Stage Fleet Size and Mix Electric Vehicle Routing Problem with Energy Estimation
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(English)In: Article in journal (Other academic) Submitted
Abstract [en]

Decarbonization of road transportation in Europe is slow, while interest in emerging vehicle technologies and operating models with environmental and operational benefits is increasing. To assess their impacts reliably, vehicle routing models increasingly support strategic fleet assessment, yet many rely on simplified energy models and neglect key vehicle- and system-level factors, limiting evaluation of emerging technologies and operating models. We develop a two-stage optimization framework that determines fleet size, mix and routes for simultaneous pickup and delivery, while estimating realistic energy use on road networks. The energy model is evaluated against real electric-truck data, and the framework quantifies trade-offs among driverless multipurpose, manually-driven combustion, and battery-electric fleets in combined freight-and-waste city logistics. Although the energy model overestimates absolute energy use, it reproduces subroute rankings and captures fleet- and network-specific effects. The framework supports energy-informed strategic, tactical and operational decisions; key limitations are scalability and modeling richer driverless multipurpose vehicle concepts.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier:
Keywords
Energy consumption, Electric vehicles, Vehicle routing, Heterogeneous fleet, Sustainable logistics, Autonomous vehicles
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics Vehicle and Aerospace Engineering
Research subject
Vehicle and Maritime Engineering; Transport Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-382527 (URN)
Funder
Vinnova, 2020-00565Vinnova, 2022-00636
Note

QC 20260529

Available from: 2026-05-28 Created: 2026-05-28 Last updated: 2026-05-29Bibliographically approved

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Andreolli, Raphael

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