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EMF Exposure in MIMO Antenna Systems: Holistic Evaluation, Mitigation Strategies, and  FR2/FR3 Advancements
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Electromagnetics and Plasma Physics.ORCID iD: 0009-0008-5778-8317
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

With the rapid development of wireless communication systems driven by the demand for higher data rates and sufficient coverage, a factor that may limit communication performance is the compliance requirements for radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure. This thesis presents a holistic study on the EMF exposure in modern antenna systems, facilitating improvements in RF device communication performance while fulfilling EMF exposure compliance. The thesis provides comprehensive studies from an evaluation process to the EMF solutions for sub-6 GHz indoor base stations, and early research for Frequency Range 2 (FR2) and FR3 RF equipment.

For sub-6 GHz indoor base stations (BSs), two main contributions are made. First, a holistic evaluation framework is established to assess power-related multiplexing efficiency, considering antenna radiation characteristics, indoor propagation scenarios, and the power reduction resulting from ensuring EMF compliance at any distance from the device (i.e. touch compliance). The proposed evaluation framework gives antenna designers a valuable basis for comparing and optimizing MIMO antenna systems while considering specific absorption rate (SAR) touch compliance and various deployment scenarios for indoor BSs. Second, passive and active EMF solutions are developed to achieve improved communication performance while ensuring EMF touch compliance. Regarding passive designs, two antenna are proposed, including a dedicated monopole antenna and a patch antenna. These designs spread the SAR distributions and thus lower the peak SAR levels, achieving touch compliance for indoor BSs without power reduction. In addition, a novel active EMF solution is proposed by reusing the communication antenna as a proximity sensor. By detecting human proximity through variations in the antenna's reflection coefficient, the BS can maintain high transmission power during normal operation and only trigger power back-off mechanisms when a human body enters the EMF exclusion zone.

As 6G systems can shift toward FR2 and FR3 bands, where the exposure metrics are absorbed power density (APD) and incident power density (IPD), three further contributions are made. First, a comprehensive review of state-of-the-art IPD and APD assessment methodologies is conducted. It aims to identify open challenges and potential future directions for accurate assessment of EMF exposure. Second, a novel metasurface-based conformal human phantom is proposed, with the potential to serve as a new test equipment for EMF assessment. Finally, an analysis of the implications of APD limits on 6G user equipment (UE) is conducted, establishing system design benchmarks, such as maximum allowed transmitted power and equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) levels, for both single- and dual-antenna systems within the 6-15 GHz spectrum.

In conclusion, the contributions of this thesis provide a set of tools related to EMF exposure research. The work also helps the future FR2/3 device development and EMF assessment equipment.

Abstract [sv]

Med den snabba utvecklingen av trådlösa kommunikationssystem, driven av kravet på högre datahastigheter och tillräcklig täckning, är en faktor som kan begränsa kommunikationsprestandan kraven på efterlevnad av regler för exponering av radiofrekventa (RF) elektromagnetiska fält (EMF). Denna avhandling presenterar en holistisk studie av EMF-exponering i moderna antennsystem, vilket underlättar förbättringar av RF-enheters kommunikationsprestanda samtidigt som kraven för EMF-exponering uppfylls. Avhandlingen omfattar omfattande studier, från en utvärderingsprocess till EMF-lösningar för inomhusbasstationer under 6 GHz, samt tidig forskning för utrustning i frekvensområdena FR2 (Frequency Range 2) och FR3.

För inomhusbasstationer (BS) under 6 GHz görs två huvudsakliga bidrag. För det första fastställs ett holistiskt utvärderingsramverk för att bedöma effektrelaterad multiplexeringseffektivitet, med hänsyn till antennens strålningsegenskaper, inomhusutbredningsscenarier och den effektreducering som följer av att säkerställa EMF-efterlevnad på alla avstånd från enheten (dvs. efterlevnad vid beröring). Det föreslagna utvärderingsramverket ger antenndesigners en värdefull grund för att jämföra och optimera MIMO-antennsystem, samtidigt som man beaktar efterlevnad av specifik absorptionsnivå (SAR) vid beröring och olika utbyggnadsscenarier för inomhusbasstationer. För det andra utvecklas passiva och aktiva EMF-lösningar för att uppnå förbättrad kommunikationsprestanda samtidigt som efterlevnad vid beröring säkerställs. När det gäller passiva konstruktioner föreslås två antenner, däribland en specialutformad monopolantenn och en patchantenn. Dessa konstruktioner sprider ut SAR-fördelningarna och sänker därmed de maximala SAR-nivåerna, vilket möjliggör efterlevnad vid beröring för inomhusbasstationer utan effektreducering. Därutöver föreslås en ny aktiv EMF-lösning genom att återanvända kommunikationsantennen som en närhetssensor. Genom att detektera mänsklig närhet via variationer i antennens reflektionskoefficient kan basstationen bibehålla hög sändningseffekt under normal drift och endast aktivera effektregleringsmekanismer när en människokropp beträder EMF-skyddszonen.

I takt med att 6G-system kan skifta mot FR2- och FR3-banden, där exponeringsmåtten är absorberad effekttäthet (APD) och infallande effekttäthet (IPD), görs ytterligare tre bidrag. För det första genomförs en omfattande genomgång av toppmoderna bedömningsmetoder för IPD och APD. Syftet är att identifiera öppna utmaningar och potentiella framtida riktningar för korrekt bedömning av EMF-exponering. För det andra föreslås ett nytt metaytebaserat konformt mänskligt fantom, med potential att fungera som en ny mätutrustning för EMF-bedömning. Slutligen genomförs en analys av konsekvenserna av APD-gränser för 6G-användarutrustning (UE), vilket fastställer riktmärken för systemdesign, såsom maximalt tillåten sändningseffekt och nivåer för ekvivalent isotropiskt utstrålad effekt (EIRP), för både enkel- och dubbelantennsystem inom spektrumet 6–15 GHz.

Sammanfattningsvis bidrar denna avhandling med en uppsättning verktyg relaterade till EMF-exponeringsforskning. Arbetet bidrar även till framtida enhetsutveckling för FR2/3 och utrustning för EMF-bedömning.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. , p. xiv, 67
Series
TRITA-EECS-AVL ; 2026:64
Keywords [en]
Absorbed power density (APD), antenna, base station, electromagnetic field (EMF), exposure, incident power density (IPD), metasurface, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), multiplexing efficiency, power control, specific absorption rate (SAR)
Keywords [sv]
Absorberad effekttäthet (APD), antenn, basstation, elektromagnetiskt fält (EMF), exponering, infallande effekttäthet (IPD), metayta, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), multiplexeringseffektivitet, effektstyrning, specifik absorptionshastighet (SAR)
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Research subject
Electrical Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387294ISBN: 978-91-8106-654-8 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-387294DiVA, id: diva2:2093677
Public defence
2026-09-18, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/69650632339, F3, Lindstedtvägen 26, Stockholm, 15:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 20260831

Available from: 2026-08-20 Created: 2026-08-19 Last updated: 2026-08-31Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Practice and Evaluation for Ceiling-Mounted MIMO Indoor Base Stations With Antenna Optimization and SAR Touch Compliance
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Practice and Evaluation for Ceiling-Mounted MIMO Indoor Base Stations With Antenna Optimization and SAR Touch Compliance
Show others...
2025 (English)In: IEEE transactions on electromagnetic compatibility (Print), ISSN 0018-9375, E-ISSN 1558-187X, Vol. 67, no 1, p. 60-71Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Antenna design for indoor base stations (BSs) needs to consider various requirements to maximize the performance of the entire system in complicated environments. In this article, antenna design and performance evaluation are conducted from a holistic perspective using a modified multiplexing efficiency. This metric considers power constraints due to electromagnetic field exposure compliance and indoor channel environments for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems. In the case study, using the reference monopole antenna, the accepted power needs to be reduced from 0.5 to 0.28 W to achieve specific absorption rate (SAR) touch compliance, resulting in a reduction in the modified multiplexing efficiency. The improved monopole antenna design can meet SAR touch compliance with an accepted power of 0.5 W by altering the electric current distribution on the monopole and ground plane. The system performance evaluated using the modified multiplexing efficiency is therefore improved by approximately 2.4 dB in the indoor environment for an indoor BS with four antennas. This holistic antenna design and evaluation process provides a valuable basis for comparing and optimizing MIMO antenna systems while considering SAR touch compliance and deployment scenarios for indoor BSs.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2025
Keywords
Antenna, base station (BS), multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), multiplexing efficiency, specific absorption rate (SAR)
National Category
Telecommunications Signal Processing Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-385854 (URN)10.1109/TEMC.2024.3511700 (DOI)001381454900001 ()2-s2.0-85212791867 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20260720

Available from: 2026-07-20 Created: 2026-07-20 Last updated: 2026-08-19Bibliographically approved
2. Cumulative Angular Power Spectrum for Indoor Base Stations Based on 3GPP Channel Models
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Cumulative Angular Power Spectrum for Indoor Base Stations Based on 3GPP Channel Models
2024 (English)In: 2024 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation and INC/USNCURSI Radio Science Meeting, AP-S/INC-USNC-URSI 2024 - Proceedings, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) , 2024, p. 1199-1200Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Based on the channel models specified by the 3GPP, this study provides distributions of the cumulative angular power spectrum (cAPS) for base stations in the indoor-office (InO) and indoor-factory (InF) scenarios. The cAPS is obtained using Monte Carlo simulations with 5000 randomly distributed user equipment per studied scenario. The cAPS in the elevation direction is fitted by the Rayleigh distribution and Gaussian distribution for the InO and InF scenarios, respectively. The effects of the room size and the frequency dependency from sub-6 GHz to 39 GHz are also investigated. The obtained distributions of the cAPS can offer insights into antenna design and placement of indoor base stations.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2024
National Category
Telecommunications Signal Processing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-355489 (URN)10.1109/AP-S/INC-USNC-URSI52054.2024.10686862 (DOI)001368605101181 ()2-s2.0-85207071278 (Scopus ID)
Conference
2024 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation and INC/USNCURSI Radio Science Meeting, AP-S/INC-USNC-URSI 2024, Florence, Italy, Jul 14 2024 - Jul 19 2024
Note

Part of ISBN 9798350369908

QC 20250226

Available from: 2024-10-30 Created: 2024-10-30 Last updated: 2026-08-19Bibliographically approved
3. Study on Antenna-Phantom Model of Aperture Antennas for SAR Analysis
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Study on Antenna-Phantom Model of Aperture Antennas for SAR Analysis
2024 (English)In: 18th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation, EuCAP 2024, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) , 2024Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

In the conventional model to explain the antenna-phantom interaction for specific absorption rate (SAR) analysis, antenna structures are treated as perfect electric conductors. However, such a model does not suffice to analyze complementary antenna structures, i.e., aperture antennas. In this paper, an antenna-phantom model for aperture antennas is introduced considering the tangential electric field generated by the equivalent magnetic currents as the primary contributor to the peak SAR level. When the out-of-phase tangential electric field of the second-order modes for a slot antenna is achieved, the peak 10-g SAR levels are lower than that is caused by a conventional slot antenna with the first-order mode in the same condition due to destructive superposition. Therefore, the proposed antenna-phantom model is helpful to guide the aperture antenna design for the SAR compliance purposes.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2024
Keywords
aperture antenna, higher-order mode, RF exposure, specific absorption rate (SAR)
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-346528 (URN)10.23919/EuCAP60739.2024.10501692 (DOI)001215536203123 ()2-s2.0-85192432600 (Scopus ID)
Conference
18th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation, EuCAP 2024, Glasgow, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Mar 17 2024 - Mar 22 2024
Note

QC 20240520

Part of ISBN 978-88-31299-09-1

Available from: 2024-05-16 Created: 2024-05-16 Last updated: 2026-08-19Bibliographically approved
4. Wideband Patch Antenna Using Higher Order Modes for SAR Touch Compliant Indoor MIMO Base Stations
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Wideband Patch Antenna Using Higher Order Modes for SAR Touch Compliant Indoor MIMO Base Stations
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2026 (English)In: IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, ISSN 0018-926X, E-ISSN 1558-2221, Vol. 74, no 2, p. 2125-2130Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2026
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387284 (URN)10.1109/tap.2025.3634133 (DOI)001694362100039 ()2-s2.0-105023409291 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20260820

Available from: 2026-08-19 Created: 2026-08-19 Last updated: 2026-08-20Bibliographically approved
5. Human Proximity Detection and Power Control Based on Antenna Sensing for EMF Touch Compliance of Indoor Base Stations
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Human Proximity Detection and Power Control Based on Antenna Sensing for EMF Touch Compliance of Indoor Base Stations
2025 (English)In: IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, ISSN 0018-926X, E-ISSN 1558-2221, Vol. 73, no 12, p. 9763-9772Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Small-cell indoor base stations (BSs) are intended to extend network coverage inside buildings and support reliable, high-performing cellular services and Internet of Things (IoT) applications. To gain full installation flexibility, it is desirable to minimize the electromagnetic field (EMF) compliance distance of indoor BSs. To this end, this study proposes a novel approach that enables indoor BSs to adjust their transmitted power dynamically based on human proximity, without requiring the use of specialized sensors. The proposed solution involves a dedicated patch antenna, designed for both robust proximity detection and wireless communication. Proximity detection is achieved by monitoring the variation in the reflection coefficient of the antenna that occurs when a human body is nearby. With this approach, the measured reflection coefficients for various distances between the antenna and a human phantom match well with simulations, showing a detectable distance up to 260 mm. The measured 10-g specific absorption rate (SAR) of the proposed antenna system remains below the regulatory limit at any distance from the BS, resulting in EMF touch compliance. The proposed human proximity detection and power control system can be used as a practical solution to simplify indoor BS installations without unnecessarily reducing the transmitted power under normal operating conditions.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2025
Keywords
antenna, base station, body effect, detuning, electromagnetic field (EMF), exposure, power control, proximity detection, reflection coefficient, sensor
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering Telecommunications Signal Processing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-370087 (URN)10.1109/TAP.2025.3603846 (DOI)001643454500035 ()2-s2.0-105015341567 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250919

Available from: 2025-09-19 Created: 2025-09-19 Last updated: 2026-08-19Bibliographically approved
6. A Review of EMF Exposure Assessment Techniques for 5G/6G Handsets above 6 GHz--Part I: IPD Assessment
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A Review of EMF Exposure Assessment Techniques for 5G/6G Handsets above 6 GHz--Part I: IPD Assessment
Show others...
(English)In: Article, review/survey (Refereed) Submitted
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387291 (URN)
Note

QC 20260820

Available from: 2026-08-19 Created: 2026-08-19 Last updated: 2026-08-20Bibliographically approved
7. A Review of EMF Exposure Assessment Techniques for 5G/6G Handsets above 6 GHz--Part II: APD Assessment
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A Review of EMF Exposure Assessment Techniques for 5G/6G Handsets above 6 GHz--Part II: APD Assessment
Show others...
(English)In: Article, review/survey (Refereed) Submitted
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387292 (URN)
Note

QC 20260820

Available from: 2026-08-19 Created: 2026-08-19 Last updated: 2026-08-20Bibliographically approved
8. Metasurface-Based Conformal Human Phantom for 6G Testing
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Metasurface-Based Conformal Human Phantom for 6G Testing
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2026 (English)In: IEEE transactions on microwave theory and techniques, ISSN 0018-9480, E-ISSN 1557-9670, p. 1-7Article in journal (Refereed) In press
Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2026
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387287 (URN)10.1109/tmtt.2026.3709695 (DOI)001843671400001 ()2-s2.0-105046865377 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20260820

Available from: 2026-08-19 Created: 2026-08-19 Last updated: 2026-08-20Bibliographically approved
9. Implications of Absorbed Power Density Limits on Maximum Power and EIRP Levels of 6G User Equipment Operating Between 6 and 15 GHz
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Implications of Absorbed Power Density Limits on Maximum Power and EIRP Levels of 6G User Equipment Operating Between 6 and 15 GHz
Show others...
(English)In: Article in journal (Refereed) Submitted
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387293 (URN)
Note

QC 20260820

Available from: 2026-08-19 Created: 2026-08-19 Last updated: 2026-08-20Bibliographically approved

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5678910118 of 22
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