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Green Cell-Free Massive MIMO for ISAC
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Communication Systems.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1807-1985
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Sustainable development
SDG 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure, SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities
Abstract [en]

Integrated sensing and communication (ISAC) has emerged as a key paradigm for future wireless networks, enabling communication infrastructures to support data transmission and environmental sensing within a unified framework. This integration, however, introduces new challenges in deployment, signal processing, and resource allocation. Cell-free massive multiple-input multiple-output (CF-mMIMO) networks, characterized by a large number of distributed access points (APs), provide a promising platform for ISAC. Through coordinated operation among distributed APs, CF-mMIMO systems can support flexible bi-static and multi-static sensing configurations, thereby avoiding the full-duplex requirement of conventional mono-static sensing systems. Moreover, the distributed AP architecture provides spatial diversity and multiplexing gains, making CF-mMIMO well-suited for advanced sensing and communication services.

Despite these advantages, integrating sensing into CF-mMIMO networks increases overall network power consumption and imposes additional demands on radio, fronthaul, and cloud-processing resources. Therefore, the effective realization of green CF-mMIMO ISAC requires joint system design and resource allocation frameworks that account for both sensing and communication requirements.

This thesis studies ISAC in CF-mMIMO systems, with a focus on efficient resource allocation, reliable sensing and communication, and end-to-end network power consumption. The main objective is to develop green CF-mMIMO ISAC frameworks that jointly design sensing and communication functionalities while addressing reliability, energy-efficiency, and scalability challenges.

The thesis first investigates power allocation for target detection in CF-mMIMO systems. By exploiting both communication signals and dedicated sensing signals, the work characterizes the trade-off between sensing and communication performance. Maximum a posteriori ratio test (MAPRT)-based detectors are developed to enable reliable target detection from signals received at distributed APs under both clutter-free and cluttered sensing environments.

Building on this foundation, the thesis extends the analysis to ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC) scenarios, where sensing information is used to support target-aware actuation use cases. In such scenarios, sensing information must be delivered reliably and within stringent latency constraints. A joint power and blocklength optimization framework is proposed to minimize energy consumption across the radio and cloud domains. The results characterize the interplay among sensing performance, communication reliability, latency, and processing workload, highlighting the importance of jointly optimizing system parameters under strict quality-of-service requirements.

A central contribution of the thesis is the development of end-to-end network power models for CF-mMIMO ISAC systems. Unlike conventional approaches that focus primarily on transmit power, the proposed models incorporate radio, fronthaul, and cloud-processing power consumption. This enables a more comprehensive evaluation of energy efficiency in ISAC networks and reveals the impact of sensing-related processing and signaling overhead on the total network power consumption.

To address scalability challenges in large-scale deployments, the thesis further investigates distributed sensing architectures. Two sensing-information levels, namely fully-informed and partially-informed systems, are considered to capture different trade-offs among sensing accuracy, computational complexity, and fronthaul signaling overhead. A cross-layer optimization framework is then developed to jointly manage radio, fronthaul, and cloud resources, substantially reducing total network power consumption while maintaining reliable sensing and communication performance.

Overall, the results demonstrate that CF-mMIMO is a promising architecture for green ISAC by enabling flexible resource allocation, scalable sensing architectures, and significant energy savings. The proposed methods provide practical insights into the design of next-generation wireless networks that integrate sensing and communication in an energy-efficient and scalable manner.

Abstract [sv]

Integrerad sensning och kommunikation (ISAC) har framträtt som ett centralt paradigm för framtida trådlösa nätverk, där kommunikationsinfrastrukturer kan stödja dataöverföring och miljöavkänning inom ett gemensamt ramverk. Denna integration medför dock nya utmaningar relaterade till implementering, signalbehandling och resursallokering. Cellfria massiva multipelantennsystem, eller cell-free massive multiple-input multiple-output (CF-mMIMO), som kännetecknas av ett stort antal distribuerade accesspunkter (AP:er), utgör en lovande plattform för ISAC. Genom koordinerad drift mellan distribuerade AP:er kan CF-mMIMO-system stödja flexibla bistatiska och multistatiska sensningskonfigurationer, vilket undviker kravet på full-duplexdrift i konventionella monostatiska sensningssystem. Dessutom ger den distribuerade AP-arkitekturen rumslig diversitet och multiplexeringsvinster, vilket gör CF-mMIMO väl lämpat för avancerade sensnings- och kommunikationstjänster.

Trots dessa fördelar ökar integreringen av sensning i CF-mMIMO-nätverk den totala effektförbrukningen och ställer ytterligare krav på radio-, fronthaul- och molnbaserade beräkningsresurser. En effektiv realisering av grön CF-mMIMO-baserad ISAC kräver därför gemensam systemdesign och resursallokering som beaktar både sensnings- och kommunikationskrav.

Denna avhandling studerar ISAC i CF-mMIMO-system, med fokus på effektiv resursallokering, tillförlitlig sensning och kommunikation samt end-to-end-effektförbrukning i nätverket. Huvudmålet är att utveckla ramverk för grön CF-mMIMO-baserad ISAC där sensnings- och kommunikationsfunktioner utformas gemensamt, samtidigt som utmaningar kopplade till tillförlitlighet, energieffektivitet och skalbarhet hanteras.

Avhandlingen undersöker först effektallokering för måldetektering i CF-mMIMO-system. Genom att utnyttja både kommunikationssignaler och dedikerade sensningssignaler karakteriseras avvägningen mellan sensnings- och kommunikationsprestanda. Detektorer baserade på maximum a posteriori ratio test (MAPRT) utvecklas för att möjliggöra tillförlitlig måldetektering med hjälp av signaler som tas emot vid distribuerade AP:er, både i störningsfria och i klutterpåverkade sensningsmiljöer.

Med detta som grund utvidgas analysen till scenarier med ultratillförlitlig kommunikation med låg latens, ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC), där sensningsinformation används för att stödja målanpassade styrningsapplikationer. I sådana scenarier måste sensningsinformationen levereras tillförlitligt och inom strikta latenskrav. Ett gemensamt optimeringsramverk för effekt och blocklängd föreslås för att minimera energiförbrukningen inom både radio- och molndomänerna. Resultaten karakteriserar samspelet mellan sensningsprestanda, kommunikationstillförlitlighet, latens och beräkningsbelastning, och visar vikten av att optimera systemparametrar gemensamt under strikta tjänstekvalitetskrav.

Ett centralt bidrag i avhandlingen är utvecklingen av end-to-end-effektmodeller för CF-mMIMO-baserade ISAC-system. Till skillnad från konventionella metoder, som främst fokuserar på sändareffekt, inkluderar de föreslagna modellerna effektförbrukning i radio-, fronthaul- och molnbaserad signalbehandling. Detta möjliggör en mer heltäckande utvärdering av energieffektivitet i ISAC-nätverk och tydliggör hur sensningsrelaterad beräkning och signaleringsbelastning påverkar den totala effektförbrukningen i nätverket.

För att hantera skalbarhetsutmaningar i storskaliga implementationer undersöker avhandlingen även distribuerade sensningsarkitekturer. Två nivåer av sensningsinformation, nämligen fullt informerade och delvis informerade system, beaktas för att beskriva olika avvägningar mellan sensningsnoggrannhet, beräkningskomplexitet och signaleringsbelastning i fronthaul. Därefter utvecklas ett optimeringsramverk över flera lager för att gemensamt hantera radio-, fronthaul- och molnresurser, vilket avsevärt minskar den totala effektförbrukningen i nätverket samtidigt som tillförlitlig sensnings- och kommunikationsprestanda bibehålls.

Sammanfattningsvis visar resultaten att CF-mMIMO är en lovande arkitektur för grön ISAC genom att möjliggöra flexibel resursallokering, skalbara sensningsarkitekturer och betydande energibesparingar. De föreslagna metoderna ger praktiska insikter för utformningen av nästa generations trådlösa nätverk, där sensning och kommunikation integreras på ett energieffektivt och skalbart sätt.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. , p. 98
Series
TRITA-EECS-AVL ; 2026:68
Keywords [en]
Integrated sensing and communication, cell-free massive MIMO, multi-static sensing, power allocation, ultra-reliable low-latency communication, network power consumption
Keywords [sv]
Integrerad sensning och kommunikation, cellfri massiv MIMO, multistatisk sensning, effektallokering, ultratillförlitlig kommunikation med låg latens, nätverkets energiförbrukning
National Category
Communication Systems
Research subject
Information and Communication Technology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387603ISBN: 978-91-8106-661-6 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-387603DiVA, id: diva2:2095765
Public defence
2026-09-18, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/65319785321, Kollegiesalen, Brinellvägen 8, Stockholm, 14:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 20260828

Available from: 2026-08-28 Created: 2026-08-27 Last updated: 2026-09-07Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Power Allocation for Joint Communication and Sensing in Cell-Free Massive MIMO
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Power Allocation for Joint Communication and Sensing in Cell-Free Massive MIMO
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2022 (English)In: 2022 IEEE GLOBAL COMMUNICATIONS CONFERENCE (GLOBECOM 2022), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) , 2022, p. 4081-4086Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

This paper studies a joint communication and sensing (JCAS) system with downlink communication and multi-static sensing for single-target detection in a cloud radio access network architecture. A centralized operation of cell-free massive MIMO is considered for communication and sensing purposes. The JCAS transmit access points (APs) jointly serve the user equipments (UEs) and optionally steer a beam towards the target. A maximum a posteriori ratio test detector is derived to detect the target using signals received at distributed APs. We propose a power allocation algorithm to maximize the sensing signal-to-noise ratio under the condition that a minimal signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio value for each UE is guaranteed. Numerical results show that, compared to the fully communication-centric power allocation, the detection probability under a certain false alarm probability can be increased significantly by the proposed algorithm for both JCAS setups: i) using additional sensing symbols or ii) using only existing communication symbols.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2022
Series
IEEE Global Communications Conference, ISSN 2334-0983
Keywords
Distributed joint communication and radar sensing, cell-free massive MIMO, C-RAN, power allocation
National Category
Telecommunications
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-326373 (URN)10.1109/GLOBECOM48099.2022.10000730 (DOI)000922633504020 ()2-s2.0-85142821250 (Scopus ID)
Conference
IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), DEC 04-08, 2022, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Note

QC 20240430

Available from: 2023-05-03 Created: 2023-05-03 Last updated: 2026-08-27Bibliographically approved
2. Multi-Static Target Detection and Power Allocation for Integrated Sensing and Communication in Cell-Free Massive MIMO
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Multi-Static Target Detection and Power Allocation for Integrated Sensing and Communication in Cell-Free Massive MIMO
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2024 (English)In: IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, ISSN 1536-1276, E-ISSN 1558-2248, Vol. 23, no 9, p. 11580-11596Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This paper studies an integrated sensing and communication (ISAC) system within a centralized cell-free massive MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) network for target detection. ISAC transmit access points serve the user equipments in the downlink and optionally steer a beam toward the target in a multi-static sensing framework. A maximum a posteriori ratio test detector is developed for target detection in the presence of clutter, so-called target-free signals. Additionally, sensing spectral efficiency (SE) is introduced as a key metric, capturing the impact of resource utilization in ISAC. A power allocation algorithm is proposed to maximize the sensing signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio while ensuring minimum communication requirements. Two ISAC configurations are studied: utilizing existing communication beams for sensing and using additional sensing beams. The proposed algorithm’s efficiency is investigated in realistic and idealistic scenarios, corresponding to the presence and absence of the target-free channels, respectively. Despite performance degradation in the presence of target-free channels, the proposed algorithm outperforms the interference-unaware benchmark, leveraging clutter statistics. Comparisons with a fully communication-centric algorithm reveal superior performance in both cluttered and clutter-free environments. The incorporation of an extra sensing beam enhances detection performance for lower radar cross-section variances. Moreover, the results demonstrate the effectiveness of the integrated operation of sensing and communication compared to an orthogonal resource-sharing approach.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2024
National Category
Communication Systems
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-345786 (URN)10.1109/TWC.2024.3383209 (DOI)001312963400035 ()2-s2.0-85190174365 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20241007

Available from: 2024-04-19 Created: 2024-04-19 Last updated: 2026-08-27Bibliographically approved
3. Energy Saving in Cell-Free Massive MIMO ISAC for Ultra-Reliable Target-Aware Actuation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Energy Saving in Cell-Free Massive MIMO ISAC for Ultra-Reliable Target-Aware Actuation
2026 (English)In: IEEE Transactions on Green Communications and Networking, E-ISSN 2473-2400, Vol. 10, p. 3756-3771Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Emerging 6G sensing-based applications rely on ultra-reliable target-aware actuation, where timely and accurate sensing information triggers critical actions. Achieving this requires tightly integrated sensing and communication (ISAC) under stringent reliability and latency constraints. This paper investigates ISAC in a downlink cell-free massive multiple-input multiple-output (CF-mMIMO) system supporting multi-static sensing and ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC). We propose a joint power and blocklength allocation algorithm to minimize total energy consumption, accounting for both radio-site and cloud-side processing energy for communication and sensing, while meeting communication and sensing requirements. The non-convex optimization problem is solved using a combination of feasible point pursuit–successive convex approximation (FPP-SCA), concave-convex programming (CCP), and fractional programming techniques. We consider two types of target detectors: clutter-aware and clutter-unaware, each with distinct complexity and performance trade-offs. A computational complexity analysis based on giga-operations per second (GOPS) is conducted to quantify the processing requirements of communication and sensing tasks. We also introduce the refreshing rate for sensing information and derive a closed-form expression that accounts for both observation and processing delays. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm achieves up to 34% energy reduction compared to schemes using the maximum allowable blocklength and enhances detection capability while consuming less total energy. Clutter-aware detectors, despite higher complexity, require fewer antennas and sensing receive APs, yielding up to 40% energy savings.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2026
National Category
Engineering and Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387600 (URN)10.1109/tgcn.2026.3717459 (DOI)001841750900005 ()2-s2.0-105046080833 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20260831

Available from: 2026-08-27 Created: 2026-08-27 Last updated: 2026-08-31Bibliographically approved
4. Distributed Versus Centralized Sensing in Cell-Free Massive MIMO
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Distributed Versus Centralized Sensing in Cell-Free Massive MIMO
2024 (English)In: IEEE Wireless Communications Letters, ISSN 2162-2337, E-ISSN 2162-2345, Vol. 13, no 12, p. 3345-3349Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This letter investigates single-target detection in an integrated sensing and communication (ISAC) system, implemented within a cell-free massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) setup, based on a cloud radio access network (C-RAN) architecture. Unlike previous centralized approaches where sensing is processed in the central cloud, we propose a distributed approach where sensing partially occurs at the receive access points (APs). We consider two scenarios based on the knowledge available at receive APs: i) fully-informed, with complete access to transmitted signal information, and ii) partly-informed, with access only to transmitted signal statistics. We introduce a maximum a posteriori ratio test detector for both distributed sensing scenarios and assess the signaling load for sensing. The fully-informed scenario's performance aligns with the centralized approach in terms of target detection probability. However, the partly-informed scenario requires an additional 13 dBsm variance on the target's radar cross section (RCS) for a detection probability above 0.9. Distributed sensing significantly reduces signaling load, especially in the partly-informed scenario, achieving a 70% reduction under our system setup.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2024
Keywords
Sensors, Vectors, Integrated sensing and communication, Detectors, Receivers, Computer architecture, Wireless sensor networks, cell-free massive MIMO, C-RAN, distributed sensing, multi-static sensing
National Category
Communication Systems
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-358612 (URN)10.1109/LWC.2024.3462710 (DOI)001375692100004 ()2-s2.0-85204444473 (Scopus ID)
Note

QC 20250120

Available from: 2025-01-20 Created: 2025-01-20 Last updated: 2026-08-27Bibliographically approved
5. Green Cell-Free Massive MIMO for ISAC: Joint Cloud, Fronthaul and Radio Resource Allocation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Green Cell-Free Massive MIMO for ISAC: Joint Cloud, Fronthaul and Radio Resource Allocation
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(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-387601 (URN)
Note

QC 20260901

Available from: 2026-08-27 Created: 2026-08-27 Last updated: 2026-09-01Bibliographically approved

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34567896 of 22
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