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Low-Temperature Fabrication of Millimeter-Scale MEMS-Based Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Energy Harvesters for Medical Implants
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Intelligent systems, Micro and Nanosystems.
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Intelligent systems, Micro and Nanosystems.ORCID iD: 0009-0003-4252-9973
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Intelligent systems, Micro and Nanosystems.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9552-4234
KTH, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), Intelligent systems, Micro and Nanosystems. Karolinska University Hospital, MedTechLabs, Bioclinicum, Solna, Sweden, 171 64.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7147-6730
2024 (English)In: Journal of microelectromechanical systems, ISSN 1057-7157, E-ISSN 1941-0158, Vol. 33, no 5, p. 524-531Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

MEMS-based piezoelectric ultrasonic energy harvesters (PUEH) have become one of the most promising options for replacing or transferring energy to batteries in medical implants, where device miniaturization and power optimization are needed. Among the most commonly used piezoelectric materials in PUEH, lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is widely acknowledged for its excellent piezoelectric properties, good stability, and low cost. However, the performance of PZT degrades when the processing temperature approaches and exceeds half of its Curie temperature Tc, limiting its application. Here, we demonstrate a highly miniaturized, low-temperature fabricated MEMS-based PUEH with an effective ultrasound harvesting area of 0.79 mm2 and an effective device volume of 0.35 mm3. The low-temperature adhesive epoxy bonding ensures the temperature throughout the entire fabrication process remains below 85°C, which preserves the properties of the integrated piezoelectric material to the greatest extent. This allows the use of bulk PZT-5H, a material that possesses superior piezoelectric properties, but has a relatively low Tc, to enhance device performance. Our device outputs a root-mean-square (RMS) voltage of 0.62 V and an RMS power of 0.19 mW on a 2 kΩ resistive load at an optimum operating frequency of 200 kHz, with a reception distance of 20 mm in water and input acoustic power intensity of 178 mW/cm2. The proposed design and fabrication technique enable our device to achieve the smallest effective size among the reported MEMS-based PUEH while still being capable of powering up numerous implantable medical devices and being compatible with various commercially available power management units. [2024-0081]

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. , 2024. Vol. 33, no 5, p. 524-531
Keywords [en]
Energy harvesting, medical implant, piezoelectricity, ultrasonic transducer
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-355419DOI: 10.1109/JMEMS.2024.3418580ISI: 001271968900001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85206842684OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-355419DiVA, id: diva2:1909163
Note

QC 20241101

Available from: 2024-10-30 Created: 2024-10-30 Last updated: 2026-01-23Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Unorthodox mechanical microsystems for drug delivery
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Unorthodox mechanical microsystems for drug delivery
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) offer powerful solutions for drug delivery where biological barriers limit the potential of advanced therapeutics. This thesis demonstrates how unorthodox applications of microfabrication techniques can create novel platforms to overcome drug delivery challenges, enhancing the delivery of potent and fragile biologics.

The first part of this work focuses on implantable systems. An ultrasonically actuated micro-implant is presented, which exploits mechanical resonance not for sensing but for the selective, on demand destruction of reservoir membranes. This enables remotely triggered drug release without onboard power or electronics. Building on this, a miniaturized ultrasonic energy harvester is developed, integrating a high-performance, bulk piezoelectric material (PZT-5H) via a novel low-temperature bonding process, creating a robust power source for future active implants.

The second part explores two-photon polymerization (2PP) to fabricate complex 3D microstructures for non-invasive delivery. First, rolling ultra-miniaturized microneedle spheres (RUMS) are introduced. Unlike traditional flat microneedle patches, these 3D particles are suspended in topical formulations to gently and repeatedly disrupt the skin’s stratum corneum, enabling the effective transdermal delivery of biologics. Second, a micro-swirl nozzle, a design typically found in internal combustion or agricultural applications, has been developed to aerosolize fragile biologics. This geometry generates a fine mist suitable for deep lung deliverythrough a low-shear mechanism, preserving the integrity of sensitive payloads like lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-encapsulated mRNA.

Collectively, this work showcases a versatile approach to biomedical engineering, where the precise control of micro-scale geometry and physics is leveraged to solve persistent challenges in therapeutic delivery.

Abstract [sv]

Mikroelektromekaniska system (MEMS) erbjuder nya effektiva lösningar för läkemedelstillförsel där biologiska barriärer hindrar den kliniska potentialen hos avancerade terapier. Denna avhandling visar hur oortodoxa tillämpningar av mikrofabrikationstekniker kan skapa nya plattformar för att överkomma läkemedelstillförsel utmaningar och förbättra tillförsel av potenta och ömtåliga biologiska läkemedel.

Den första delen av detta arbete fokuserar på implanterbara system. Ett ultraljudsaktiverat mikroimplantat presenteras som utnyttjar mekanisk resonans, inte för avkänning, utan för selektiv, on-demand destruktion av reservoarmembran. Detta möjliggör fjärrstyrd läkemedelsfrisättning utan någon inbyggd strömförsörjning eller elektronik. Baserat på samma teknik har en miniatyriserad ultraljudsenergiuppsamlare utvecklats. Den integrerar ett högpresterande, bulk-piezoelektriskt material (PZT-5H) via en ny lågtemperaturbindningsprocess, vilket skapar en robust strömkälla för framtida aktiva implantat.

Den andra delen utav arbetet utforskar tvåfotonpolymerisation (2PP) för att tillverka komplexa 3D-mikrostrukturer för icke-invasiv läkemedelstillförsel. Först introduceras rullande ultraminiatyriserade mikronålssfärer (RUMS). Till skillnad från traditionella platta mikronålsplåster är dessa 3D-partiklar suspenderade i topiska formuleringar för att skonsamt och upprepat bryta hudens hornlager, vilket möjliggör effektiv leverans av biologiska läkemedel genom huden av. Vidare har ett mikrovirvelmunstycke, en design som vanligtvis återfinns i förbränningsmotorer eller i jordbrukstillämpningar, utvecklats för att aerosolisera ömtåliga biologiska läkemedel. Geometrin hos munstycket genererar en fin dimma som är lämplig för djup lungadministrering genom en lågskjuvningsmekanism. Detta bevarar integriteten hos läkemedel med känsliga laster såsom lipid nanopartikel (LNP)-inkapslat mRNA.

Sammantaget visar detta arbete användbara och mångsidiga tillvägagångssätt inom medicinsk teknik, där precis kontroll av mikroskalig geometri och fysik utnyttjas för att lösa svåra utmaningar inom läkemedelstillförsel.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2025. p. xii, 85
Series
TRITA-EECS-AVL ; 2025:101
Keywords
Ulrasound, Piezoelectric, Energy Harvesting, Microneedles, Soft Mist Inhaler, Drug delivery, Biologics, 2-photon, additive manufacturing, MEMS, Ultraljud, Piezoelektrisk, Energiutvinning, Mikronålar, Soft Mist Inhalator, Läkemedelstillförsel, Biologiska läkemedel, 2-foton, additiv tillverkning, MEMS
National Category
Medical Engineering Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Research subject
Electrical Engineering; Medical Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-372432 (URN)978-91-8106-455-1 (ISBN)
Public defence
2025-12-19, Kollegiesalen, Brinellvägen 8, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 20251107

Available from: 2025-11-07 Created: 2025-11-06 Last updated: 2026-01-28Bibliographically approved
2. Integrated Microsystems for Fluorescence Sensing and Ultrasonic Energy Harvesting in Biomedical Applications
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Integrated Microsystems for Fluorescence Sensing and Ultrasonic Energy Harvesting in Biomedical Applications
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Advances in miniaturized biomedical microsystems, ranging from in vitro microphysiological systems (MPS) to implantable devices, are enabling new modes of continuous, autonomous preclinical studies. This thesis presents a set of interconnected research contributions on millimeter-scale fluorescence-sensing and ultrasonic energy-harvesting microsystems, collectively advancing the development of integrated and miniaturized biomedical instrumentation.

The first part introduces an integrated microoptical system for fluorescence sensing in MPS, incorporating custom micro-optics and miniaturized excitation and detection units with tailored optical filters. This platform enables real-time, continuous fluorescence monitoring of microtissues under physiologically relevant conditions, strengthening the analytical capabilities of MPS for long-duration studies of drug delivery and cellular behavior.

The second part translates these sensing concepts to fully implantable microsystems capable of autonomous, long-term in vivo fluorescence recording. A compact 5 × 5 × 5 mm³ implant integrates a miniaturized optical module and low-power electronics to track fluorescence dynamics within living tissue. Validated across phantom, in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies, the system demonstrates two-week continuous tracking of tumor-associated fluorescence, establishing its suitability for preclinical studies.

The final part focuses on ultrasonic energy harvesting to enable the autonomous operation of implantable devices. A MEMS-based piezoelectric ultrasonic energy harvester (PUEH) fabricated using a low-temperature bonding process allows integration of high-performance bulk PZT-5H, demonstrating the potential of MEMS architectures for efficient ultrasonic power transfer. An integrated energy-harvesting node, also in a 5 × 5 × 5 mm³ form factor, combines the MEMS-based PUEH with power management and storage to support autonomous operation of millimetric implants.

Together, these contributions advance miniaturized fluorescence sensing and ultrasonic energy transfer, enabling versatile microsystems for biomedical applications.

Abstract [sv]

Framsteg inom miniatyriserade biomedicinska mikrosystem, allt från in vitro-mikrofysiologiska system (MPS) till implanterbara enheter, möjliggör nya former av kontinuerliga, autonoma prekliniska studier. Denna avhandling presenterar en uppsättning sammankopplade forskningsbidrag om millimeterskaliga fluorescensavkännande och ultraljudsenergiupptagnings-mikrosystem, som tillsammans främjar utvecklingen av integrerade och miniatyriserade biomedicinska instrument.

Den första delen introducerar ett integrerat mikrooptiskt system för fluorescensavkänning i MPS, som innehåller anpassad mikrooptik och miniatyriserade excitations- och detektionsenheter med skräddarsydda optiska filter. Denna plattform möjliggör kontinuerlig fluorescensövervakning i realtid av mikrovävnader under fysiologiskt relevanta förhållanden, vilket stärker MPS analytiska kapacitet för långvariga studier av läkemedelsleverans och cellulärt beteende. Den andra delen översätter dessa avkänningskoncept till helt implanterbara mikrosystem som kan utföra autonom, långsiktig in vivo-fluorescensregistrering. Ett kompakt 5 × 5 × 5 mm³-implantat integrerar en miniatyriserad optisk modul och lågeffektselektronik för att spåra fluorescensdynamik i levande vävnad. Systemet har validerats i fantom-, in vitro-, ex vivo- och in vivo-studier och demonstrerar två veckors kontinuerlig övervakning av tumörassocierad fluorescens, vilket fastställer dess lämplighet för prekliniska studier. Den sista delen fokuserar på ultraljudsenergiupp-samling för att möjliggöra autonom implantatdrift. En MEMS-baserad piezoelektrisk ultraljudsenergiuppsamlingsenhet (PUEH) tillverkad med en lågtemperaturbindningsprocess möjliggör integration av högpresterande bulk-PZT-5H, vilket demonstrerar potentialen hos MEMS-arkitekturer för effektiv ultraljudsenergiöverföring. En integrerad energiuppsamlingsnod, också i en formfaktor på 5 × 5 × 5 mm³, kombinerar MEMS PUEH med energihantering och lagring för att stödja autonom drift av millimetriska implantat.

Tillsammans främjar dessa bidrag miniatyriserad fluorescensavkänning och ultraljudsenergiöverföring, vilket möjliggör mångsidiga mikrosystem för biomedicinska tillämpningar.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm, Sweden: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. p. ix, 73
Series
TRITA-EECS-AVL ; 2026:11
Keywords
Integrated Microsystems, Fluorescence Sensing, Ultrasonic Energy Harvesting, Integrerade mikrosystem, fluorescensavkänning, ultraljudsenergiinsamling
National Category
Other Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering
Research subject
Electrical Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-375879 (URN)978-91-8106-517-6 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-02-20, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/63767237845, Q2, Room B218, Malvinas väg 10, Stockholm, 13:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

QC 20260127

Available from: 2026-01-27 Created: 2026-01-23 Last updated: 2026-02-09Bibliographically approved

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Tian, XuStemme, GöranRoxhed, Niclas

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