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In-situ cure monitoring of structural composite by embedment of vertically aligned carbon nanotube forests
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Material and Structural Mechanics.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9267-5042
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Material and Structural Mechanics.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-3327-1870
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Material and Structural Mechanics. Saab AB, Bröderna Ugglas gata, SE-581 88, Linköping, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-0613-2680
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Material and Structural Mechanics.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6616-2964
2025 (English)In: Composites Part B: Engineering, ISSN 1359-8368, E-ISSN 1879-1069, Vol. 293, article id 112105Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The next generation of composite structures within aerospace is envisioned to evolve from a strictly mechanical to a multifunctional structure, adding functionalities to the structure by embedment of functional filler material or incorporation of foreign structures. The introduction of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) into the composite structure to achieve sensing capabilities is one example. In this paper, online cure monitoring of aerospace-grade glass fibre/epoxy prepreg laminates is performed by in-situ resistive measurements on embedded vertically aligned carbon nanotube (VACNT) forests. The measured resistance over the course of the cure cycle has a reproducibility in its shape, itself a reflection of the state of the embedded CNTs. The measured resistance is interpreted after studying the morphology of the VACNT forest, cure kinetics and viscosity of the resin, and volumetric changes of both resin and laminate during the cure cycle. The resistive signal is determined to detect the transition between the air-evacuation and consolidation regimes of the laminate compaction and the gel point of the epoxy. Unique observations after the gel point are recorded, theorised to be caused by the build-up of residual stresses in the laminate. The proposed cure monitoring sensor system offers great flexibility, being able to monitor the curing process locally anywhere in the laminate. Additionally, the proposed sensor offers a life-span multifunctionality to the produced component, possessing strain and temperature sensing capabilities in the cured state ideal for structural health monitoring.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier BV , 2025. Vol. 293, article id 112105
Keywords [en]
A. Nano-structures, A. polymer-matrix composites (PMCs), B. Electrical properties, Cure monitoring
National Category
Composite Science and Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-358396DOI: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2024.112105ISI: 001400585400001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85214323835OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-358396DiVA, id: diva2:1927871
Note

QC 20250116

Available from: 2025-01-15 Created: 2025-01-15 Last updated: 2026-04-08Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Intrinsic Self-Sensing in Advanced Composites Enabled by Carbon Nanostructures
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Intrinsic Self-Sensing in Advanced Composites Enabled by Carbon Nanostructures
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Lightweight composite structures have become essential in modern aerospace engineering, where increasing demands for fuel efficiency, reduced emissions, and improved operational reliability place new requirements on both materials and manufacturing. As composite components grow more advanced, featuring co-cured components, complex geometries, and thinner design margins, the need for improved insight into their internal behaviour becomes critical. Existing sensing technologies struggle to provide local, in-situ information from the composite’s interior during manufacturing or throughout its service life, without compromising structural integrity. This creates a gap between the capability of current sensing approaches and the monitoring demands required by the complexity of next-generation composites.

This thesis addresses this gap by investigating the feasibility of embedding nanomaterial-based sensing structures, primarily vertically aligned carbon nanotube (VACNT) forests, into fibre-reinforced polymer composites. The overarching aim is to explore how such sensors can be integrated with minimal structural intrusion, from where their sensing behaviour originates, and how they can provide reliable, multifunctional monitoring both during manufacturing and in the cured state. The work spans the development of embedding and contacting strategies, bottom-up characterisation to investigate sensing mechanisms, and the exploration of both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) measurement approaches. Collectively, the research seeks to expand the understanding of how nanomaterial sensors interact with composite materials and how they can support the design of future multifunctional aerospace structures.

The findings demonstrate that VACNT forests can be embedded into composite laminates without compromising the composite’s mechanical structure, while providing robust and reproducible sensing capabilities. A bottom-up analysis helps determine that the embedded VACNT forests’ thermoresistive behaviour is governed by fluctuation-assisted tunnelling, and their linear piezoresistive response originates in the intrinsic piezoresistivity of individual CNTs. The VACNT forests enable local in-situ cure monitoring of prepreg laminate, detecting key process transitions. Strategies for sensing in conductive carbon fibre environments are established, as well as comparisons with alternative nanomaterial-based sensors such as graphene coatings. Finally, by transitioning from DC resistance to AC impedance measurements, the work shows that embedded CNT structures can detect high transverse pressures and exhibit frequency-dependent sensing sensitivity.

Together, these results establish VACNT forests as a promising, multifunctional, and structurally compatible sensing concept for advanced composite structures, offering new pathways for embedded process monitoring, structural health monitoring, and the development of next-generation multifunctional aerospace components.

Abstract [sv]

Lätta kompositstrukturer har blivit avgörande inom modern flygteknik, där ökade krav på bränsleeffektivitet, minskade utsläpp och förbättrad driftsäkerhet ställer nya krav på både material och tillverkningsprocesser. I takt med att kompositkomponenter blir allt mer avancerade, med samhärdade komponenter, komplexa geometrier och tunnare konstruktionsmarginaler, blir behovet av förbättrad insyn i deras interna beteende allt mer kritiskt. Befintlig sensorteknologi har svårt att ge lokal, in-situ information från kompositens inre under tillverkning samt under dess livslängd, utan att kompromissa med den strukturella integriteten. Detta skapar ett gap mellan förmågan hos nuvarande sensorlösningar och de övervakningskrav som uppkommer i och med nästa generations komplexa kompositstrukturer.

Denna avhandling adresserar detta gap genom att undersöka möjligheten att integrera nanomaterialbaserade sensorstrukturer, främst vertikalt riktade kolnanorörsskogar (VACNT), i fiberförstärkta polymerkompositer. Det övergripande målet är att utforska hur sådana sensorer kan integreras med minimal strukturell påverkan, varifrån deras sensorbeteende har sitt ursprung, och hur de kan erbjuda tillförlitlig och multifunktionell övervakning både under tillverkning och i det härdade tillståndet. Arbetet omfattar utveckling av strategier för integrering och elektrisk kontaktering av sensorn, bottom-up-karakterisering för att undersöka sensormekanismer, samt utforskning av mätmetoder baserade på både likström (DC) och växelström (AC). Övergripande syftar forskningen till att utvidga och öka förståelsen för hur nanomaterialbaserade sensorer interagerar med kompositmaterial och hur de kan stödja utvecklingen av framtida multifunktionella flygstrukturer.

Resultaten visar att VACNT‑skogar kan integreras in i kompositlaminat utan att påverka laminatet negativt mekaniskt, samtidigt som de erbjuder robusta och reproducerbara sensorfunktioner. En bottom-up-analys fastställer att de inbäddade VACNT-skogarnas termoresistiva beteende styrs av fluktuationsassisterad tunnling, och att dess linjära piezoresistiva beteende härrör från den piezoresistiva effekten hos enskilda kolnanorör. VACNT‑skogarna möjliggör lokal in-situ övervakning av härdningsprocessen i prepreglaminat, där betydande processövergångar kan övervakas. Strategier för mätningar i konduktiva kolfibermiljöer etableras, liksom jämförelser med alternativa nanomaterialbaserade sensorer såsom ytbeläggningar av grafen. Slutligen visar övergången från DC-resistans till AC-impedansmätningar att de inbäddade CNT-strukturerna kan detektera höga transversella tryck och uppvisa frekvensberoende sensorkänslighet.

Sammanfattningsvis etablerar dessa resultat VACNT-skogar som ett lovande, multifunktionellt och strukturellt kompatibelt sensorkoncept för avancerade kompositstrukturer, som erbjuder nya möjligheter för inbäddad processövervakning, strukturell hälsomonitorering och utveckling av nästa generations multifunktionella flygkomponenter.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. p. xiii, 52
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2026:05
Keywords
Embedded Sensing, Cure Monitoring, Structural Health Monitoring, Vertically Aligned Carbon Nanotubes, Resistive Sensing, Impedance Spectroscopy, Inbyggd sensorteknik, Härdningsövervakning, Strukturell hälsoövervakning, Vertikalt riktade kolnanorör, Resistiv mätning, Impedansspektroskopi.
National Category
Composite Science and Engineering
Research subject
Vehicle and Maritime Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-379083 (URN)978-91-8106-551-0 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-05-05, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/64849919816, F3, Lindstedtvägen 26, Stockholm, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Vinnova, 2018-02852Vinnova, 2020-04042Vinnova, 2024-01289
Note

QC 20260409

Available from: 2026-04-09 Created: 2026-04-08 Last updated: 2026-05-04Bibliographically approved

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Karlsson, TobiasDutta, AbhikHallander, PerÅkermo, Malin

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