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Quantifying Demographic, Anthropometric, and Neurological Impairment Effects on Walking Performance in People with Spinal Cord Injury
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Aerospace, moveability and naval architecture.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4571-1984
Aleris Rehab Station R&D Unit, Solna; Karolinska Institutet, Division of Physiotherapy and Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Stockholm, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-5540-342X
Aleris Rehab Station R&D Unit, Solna; Karolinska Institutet, Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Stockholm, Sweden.
KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Engineering Mechanics, Aerospace, moveability and naval architecture. Karolinska Institutet, Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Stockholm, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-5417-5939
2025 (English)In: IEEE transactions on neural systems and rehabilitation engineering, ISSN 1534-4320, E-ISSN 1558-0210, Vol. 33, p. 4422-4431Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can impair sensorimotor pathways and reduce walking ability. The effects of sensorimotor impairments are complex, as they interact with other factors such as age, pain, injury level, and injury severity. Traditional regression analyses have been used to describe relationships, but they frequently assume linearity. Explainable AI methods such as SHapley Additive ex-Planations (SHAP), based on cooperative game theory, can reveal feature importance globally and locally. Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) can handle limited datasets, a common challenge in observational clinical studies with small sample sizes. In this study, we proposed and evaluated a framework applying GPR and SHAP to quantify how neurological impairments and other factors, including muscle strength, sensory function, age, pain, spasticity, etc., contribute to walking performance, specifically walking speed and net oxygen cost during a six-minute walk test. This approach estimates each factor’s contribution both on a group level and for each individual. Thirty four adults with SCI underwent a clinical assessment and the six-minute walk test with preferred walking aids if relevant. Muscle strength was the most influential factor in both walking speed and net oxygen cost. Male sex, lower age, and less pain were associated with increased walking speed. More pain, higher body mass index, and higher sensory score were associated with lower net oxygen cost. Spasticity, injury level and sensory injury levels had relatively small influence on either outcome measure. Individual SHAP analyses quantified how neurological factors influenced walking performance for each participant. We demonstrate how nonparametric regression and explainable AI provide insights into the complex neurological factors affecting walking ability in persons with SCI.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) , 2025. Vol. 33, p. 4422-4431
Keywords [en]
Health informatics, individualized effects, metabolic cost, sensorimotor effects, shapley value
National Category
Physiotherapy Neurology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-372579DOI: 10.1109/TNSRE.2025.3625089ISI: 001611645700002PubMedID: 41129426Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-105020069589OAI: oai:DiVA.org:kth-372579DiVA, id: diva2:2012797
Note

QC 20251110

Available from: 2025-11-10 Created: 2025-11-10 Last updated: 2026-05-29Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Decoding gait in individuals with spinal cord injury: From explainable AI to predictive simulations
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Decoding gait in individuals with spinal cord injury: From explainable AI to predictive simulations
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

While current biomechanics research based on normal models and assumptions of normalcy has substantial merit, it fails to reliably describe individuals with impairments. Spinal cord injury (SCI), whether traumatic or nontraumatic, can partially or completely damage sensorimotor pathways, leading to heterogeneous gait abnormalities. A substantial knowledge gap exists regarding biomechanical and neurological movement strategies in this population due to complex, interacting factors including age, weight, time since injury, pain, sensorimotor impairment, and spasticity. The ASIA Impairment Scale, while recommended for classifying injury severity, was not designed to characterize individual ambulatory capacity. Other standardized assessments based on subjective ratings or timing/distance measures have limited ability to characterize functional capacity in this population comprehensively.

This thesis therefore aims to create computational frameworks for studying walking strategies in individuals with SCI, particularly incomplete SCI (iSCI), through two complementary approaches: developing machine learning algorithms that link individual characteristics to gait outcomes, and individualizing objective functions and constraints in predictive simulations using neuromusculoskeletal modeling.

Study I proposed and evaluated a framework applying Gaussian Process Regression and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) to quantify how neurological impairments and other demographic and anthropometric factors contribute to walking speed and net Oxygen cost during a six-minute walk test. Individual SHAP analyses quantified how these factors influenced walking performance for each participant, informing personalized rehabilitation targeting areas with the most potential for improvement.

Study II stratified gait heterogeneity in individuals with iSCI by deriving clusters with similar gait patterns without a priori parameter identification and assessed clinical correlations within the derived clusters. Six distinct gait clusters were identified and characterized among 280 iSCI gait cycles, informing more individualized rehabilitation.

Study III characterized margin of stability, temporospatial parameters, and joint mechanics in four iSCI subgroups from Study II compared to participants without disability, identifying how gait adaptations evolve as muscle weakness affects major muscle groups. Gait patterns remained normal with isolated mild plantarflexor weakness but deteriorated with combined hip muscle weakness and severe plantarflexor weakness.

Study IV developed a bilevel optimization framework using Bayesian optimization to automatically identify optimal objective weights for predictive gait simulations in individuals with iSCI. Tested on one female participant with asymmetric muscle weakness, the framework successfully automated weight identification in 9-12 days and demonstrated that simulations with optimized weights outperformed literature-based reference weights for predicting kinematics, kinetics, and ground reaction forces, showing promise for systematically exploring personalized compensatory gait strategies with predictive simulations.

These findings demonstrate the potential of advanced data-driven and simulation techniques to address gait complexity in individuals with SCI, with broader applicability to other clinical populations.

Abstract [sv]

Även om nuvarande biomekanikforskning baserad på normala modeller och antaganden om normalitet har betydande förtjänster, misslyckas den med att på ett tillförlitligt sätt beskriva individer med funktionsnedsättningar under normativ funktion. Ryggmärgsskada (SCI), vare sig traumatisk eller icke-traumatisk (nontraumatisk), kan delvis eller fullständigt skada sensomotoriska banor, vilket leder till heterogena gångavvikelser. Det finns en betydande kunskapslucka gällande biomekaniska och neurologiska rörelsestrategier i denna population på grund av komplexa, interagerande faktorer inklusive ålder, vikt, tid sedan skada, smärta, sensomotorisk funktionsnedsättning och spasticitet. ASIA Impairment Scale, även om den rekommenderas för klassificering av skadans svårighetsgrad, utformades inte för att karakterisera individuell ambulatorisk kapacitet. Andra standardiserade bedömningar baserade på subjektiva skattningar eller tid-/distansmått har likaså begränsad förmåga att på ett heltäckande sätt karaktärisera funktionell kapacitet i denna population.

Den här avhandlingen syftar därför till att skapa sådana beräkningsmässiga ramverk för att studera gångstrategier hos individer med SCI, i synnerhet inkomplett SCI (iSCI), genom två kompletterande tillvägagångssätt: att utveckla maskininlärningsalgoritmer som kopplar individuella egenskaper till gångutfall, och att individualisera målfunktioner och optimeringsvillkor i prediktiva simuleringar genom neuromuskuloskeletal modellering.

Studie I föreslog och utvärderade ett ramverk som tillämpade Gaussisk Processregression och SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) för att kvantifiera hur neurologiska funktionsnedsättningar och andra demografiska och antropometriska faktorer bidrar till gånghastighet och netto syrgaskostnad under ett sex-minuters gångtest. Individuella SHAP-analyser kvantifierade hur dessa faktorer påverkade gångprestationen för varje deltagare, vilket informerade personlig rehabilitering riktad mot områden med störst potential för förbättring.

Studie II stratifierade gångheterogenitet hos individer med iSCI genom att härleda kluster med liknande gångmönster utan a priori parameteridentifiering och bedömde kliniska korrelationer inom de härledda klustren. Sex distinkta gångkluster identifierades och karakteriserades bland 280 iSCI-gångcykler, vilket representerar ett första steg mot individualiserade rehabiliteringsprogram.

Studie III karakteriserade stabilitetsmarginal, temporospatiala parametrar och ledmekanik i fyra iSCI-undergrupper från Studie II jämfört med en kontrollgrupp, och identifierade hur gånganpassningar utvecklas när muskelsvaghet progressivt påverkar större muskelgrupper. Gångmönstren förblev normala vid isolerad mild plantarflexorsvaghet men försämrades med kombinerad höftmuskelsvaghet och allvarlig plantarflexorsvaghet.

Studie IV utvecklade ett optimeringsramverk som fungerar på två nivåer. Ramverket använder Bayesiansk optimering för att automatiskt  identifiera optimala objektivvikter för prediktiva gångsimuleringar hos individer med iSCI. Vid testning på en kvinnlig deltagare med asymmetrisk muskelsvaghet lyckades ramverket automatisera viktidentifiering på 9-12 dagar och visade att optimala vikter presterade bättre än standardinställningar från litteraturen för att förutsäga kinematik, kinetik och markreaktionskrafter, vilket visar lovande potential för att systematiskt utforska personliga kompensatoriska gångstrategier med prediktiva simuleringar.

Dessa fynd demonstrerar potentialen hos avancerade datadrivna och simuleringsbaserade tekniker för att adressera gångkomplexitet hos individer med SCI, med bredare tillämplighet på andra kliniska populationer.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2026. p. 201
Series
TRITA-SCI-FOU ; 2025:64
Keywords
gait analysis, pathological gait, biomechanics, health informatics, metabolic cost, unsupervised learning, nonparametric regression, shapley addictive explanations, simulation, optimization, numerical modeling, gånganalys, patologisk gång, biomekanik, hälsoinformatik, metabolisk kostnad, oövervakad inlärning, simulering, optimering, numerisk modellering
National Category
Medical and Health Sciences Neurosciences Rehabilitation Medicine
Research subject
Engineering Mechanics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-375350 (URN)978-91-8106-469-8 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-02-06, https://kth-se.zoom.us/j/62776302499, Kollegiesalen, Brinellvägen 8, Stockholm, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2018-00750Promobilia foundation, 18200, 22300, 23300
Note

QC 20260113

Available from: 2026-01-13 Created: 2026-01-12 Last updated: 2026-02-16Bibliographically approved

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Truong, Minh Tat NhatGutierrez-Farewik, Elena

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